The base of a tree trunk is often covered with a ‘carpet’ of moss and lichens and the branches of the tree may bear ‘decorations’ of different mosses.  In shady areas, there may be a soft, spongey layer of moss underneath the tree.  Mosses are ‘simple’, non-vascular plants. They lack the sophisticated transporting tissues (phloem and xylem).  Nor do they have true roots, instead they have small structures called rhizoids, which help them attach to a surface. They ‘like’ moist places and are dependent on water for their reproduction.   The ancestors of mosses were probably some of the first plants to colonise land (previously there were only algae in the seas), possibly in the Ordovician Period. Mosses rarely grow to any great height, due to the absence of supporting mechanical tissue (lignified tissues, like xylem) but they can form extensive ‘mats’ in damp, shady places (as can liverworts).  Exposed to direct sunlight, they lose water rapidly.  Such mossy mats can, in some situations, help reduce soil erosion. The mats may also allow for the accumulation of humus and soil formation.  A particular example of the accumulation of mossy material is seen with the moss Sphagnum. Sphagnum grows in acidic, marshy conditions, often forming a bog. Low fertility and a cool climate result in slow growth of the Sphagnum (and other plants). The subsequent decay of dead plant material is even slower (due low oxygen levels). Hence, peat forms and accumulates.  Large areas of land can be covered to a depth of several metres with peat.  Bogs are a very effective means of locking up carbon for hundreds, if not thousands of years.   Sadly, many wetlands have been drained and allowed to dry out, then the peat cut from them as a form of fuel.  When peat areas are drained (channels are cut through the peat), they degrade and dry out. They are then at risk of  catching fire as has been seem in recent times:for example, the burning of  Slieve Beagh in Ireland and Langdale Moor in Yorkshire. The Interesting fact : Sphagnum has an interesting property in that can hold water  many times its own weight.  Because of this absorbency, Sphagnum was used as a wound dressing in WW1. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150780/irelands-cutaway-peatlands https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cvg9n0j07epo .

Not all trees thrive in wet ground, but some species have adapted remarkably well to life with their roots submerged or in saturated soil. Among the best known are alder (Alnus), willow (Salix), and bald cypress (Taxodium distichum). Each plays a key role in stabilizing waterways, reproducing in wet conditions, and providing ecological benefits that extend to both humans and wildlife. Bank Stabilization Waterways are naturally dynamic systems, with banks that can shift and erode over time. Trees such as alder and willow are crucial in holding these banks together. Alders develop dense root systems that grip soil tightly, reducing erosion along rivers and streams. Similarly, willows have long, fibrous roots that spread widely and bind soil particles, acting almost like a living net. Bald cypress trees are less common along fast-moving rivers but dominate in swamps and floodplains. Their root systems, which include distinctive “knees” that protrude above water, help anchor them in soft, shifting sediments. In each case, the presence of these trees prevents soil loss and maintains more stable aquatic habitats. [embed]https://youtube.com/shorts/Tx6ra0WbrQ4?feature=share[/embed] Reproduction Through Water These species have also adapted to use water as a mechanism for reproduction. Willows are particularly effective at vegetative reproduction: broken branches can float downstream, take root in wet ground, and grow into new trees. Alders disperse lightweight seeds that are carried by water, enabling them to colonize new wet areas quickly. Bald cypress trees produce woody cones that release seeds into standing water, where they can establish when conditions are right. These strategies ensure that populations remain resilient in environments that frequently flood or shift. [embed]https://youtube.com/shorts/Hxf88-V27EY?si=JCGZWVBu7D7G1U0i[/embed] Benefits of Water-Resistant Trees Water-tolerant trees provide numerous benefits to ecosystems and people. By stabilizing soil, they reduce sediment entering rivers, which improves water quality. They also mitigate flood impacts: dense stands of willow or cypress can slow water flow, reducing the severity of downstream flooding. Their shade lowers water temperature, which benefits aquatic species such as trout and amphibians. In addition, these trees contribute to biodiversity by offering habitat and food for insects, birds, and mammals. [embed]https://youtube.com/shorts/KtqFq1FdOjA?feature=share[/embed] For human communities, the presence of water-resistant trees translates into natural flood control, cleaner waterways, and protection of infrastructure built near rivers and wetlands. In a time of increasing climate variability, species that withstand flooding are especially valuable as buffers against extreme weather events. Conclusion Alder, willow, and bald cypress are excellent examples of trees that thrive with their “toes in the water.” They stabilize banks, reproduce effectively in wet habitats, and deliver ecological services that benefit both nature and people. Preserving and planting these species where appropriate is an important step in maintaining resilient waterways and healthy ecosystems.

A woodland bank can refer to various structures but usually it refers to a raised earth structure found in a woodland or on the edge of a woodland.  Such banks are usually man-made, though banks can be natural formations. Sometimes, besides the bank there is a ditch, formed where the soil for the bank was excavated.  Banks may date back hundreds of years, possibly even to mediaeval times.  They are found in the U.K and Europe.   Such banks were created to Contain deer or livestock or Mark the boundary of an area of land Woodland banks may support ancient woodland species, such as dog’s mercury, bluebells and wood anemone.  Indeed, they can be biodiversity hotspots, or corridors that help the spread of species.  In some parts of the country, there are ‘hedgebanks’,  these are raised banks which support trees and shrubs on their top surfaces.  Over the years, these may have become field boundaries. Some of the UK’s best known woodlands contain banks, for example, Epping Forest, where the banks delineate old coppicing and former deer / livestock enclosures.  The area was managed by the Royal Foresters.  Wytham Wood is probably the most intensively studied wood in the country as it is owned by the university of Oxford and used for long term ecological research.  It has several wood banks (that support indicator species) with ditches that date back to mediaeval times.  Banks and ditches are also found in Sherwood Forest, which were used to ‘control’ deer in the royal hunting ground. [caption id="attachment_42471" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Woodland ban with mature trees.[/caption] If you wish to investigate woodland banks further, there some digital resources that might be useful - for example The Magic map at DEFRA.   This can many different different features of the landscape e.g. historic boundaries, designated ancient woodland, land use etc. You zoom into your area of interest, and then make use of different layers superimposed on the detailed map of the U.K.  https://magic.defra.gov.uk/home.htm The Ancient Tree Inventory, organised by the woodland trust.  Again, this is an interactive map of ancient and veteran trees.  Woodland banks and ancient trees often ‘coincide’ as trees often marked boundaries / divisions.    https://ati.woodlandtrust.org.uk Thanks to Stuart for images. Stuart is woodlands.co.uk manager for Devon. He holds a degree in Environmental Protection and is passionate about woodlands. He enjoys the hands-on approach that working with Woodlands.co.uk affords him, clearing tracks, putting up gates and fences and getting people started with their woodland. Stuart teaches conservation to NVQ level and is very involved in practical conservation work, carrying out bat surveys, dormouse surveys and building artificial badger sets.  

Sitka Spruce is a large conifer, it can grow to a height of 100 metres or circa three hundred feet.   Its trunk can be 5 metres (16 feet) in diameter.  Its size is comparable to some of the Redwoods.   It is native to the west coast of North America.  Its name Sitka comes from an Alaskan community where it is widespread, though it can be found all along the west coast of Canada and the United States.   Loggimg has reduced much of the native spruce forest, particularly of the larger trees.   The spruce is a long lived tree, some estimated to have an age of 500 years or more.  Size in itself is not necessarily an indication of age as a tree can grow rapidly in the right conditions, adding up to a cubic metre of wood in a year.  The bark of the tree is ‘scaly’ and tends to flake off.  The deeper, inner bark has a reddish brown colour.  The leaves are needle like and stiff, somewhat flattened in cross section with a blue green colour.  The root system is relatively shallow, with long lateral roots, which means it can be susceptible to ‘wind throw’. Sitka ‘prefers’ soil high in calcium and magnesium (magnesium is essential for chlorophyll formation).  Its wind dispersed seeds readily colonise areas cleared by fire or exposed by land slip, acting as a pioneer species but in coastal areas it is a dominant, climax species. Because of its rapid growth rate and the nature of its wood, it is valued as a source of timber and used in paper production.  Specialist uses include the making of musical instruments (pianos, harps) because of its resonant nature.  It was introduced to the UK in the nineteenth century by David Douglas - the botanist after whom the Douglas Fir is named.   Sitka Spruce now accounts for some 25% of forest / plantation cover in the UK.  As with any monoculture, the biodiversity in plantations is limited and there is a move to change this.  Diversification helps make such forests more resilient to new pests and pathogens, and also climate change. Some 500+ species use Sitka trees as a space for living or for feeding, when viewed across the UK.   Most of these species are not specialists unique to Sitka and are found on a wide range of other trees.  Research is underway to use broad leaved trees to help diversify Sitka forests.   The introduction of such trees might improve litter decomposition and nutrient cycling.   A number of trees are possible candidates e,g. oak, birch, beech, spruce and pine.  They would help support existing species visiting Sitka and add others.  However,  individual trees of these tree species will not grow long-term in stands of Sitka. However, it might be possible to achieve the benefits of diversification by using small blocks of single species within specific management areas.  More research is needed to determine the optimal size and spatial arrangement of such blocks. [caption id="attachment_42460" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Sitka spruce[/caption] Further reading : https://academic.oup.com/forestry/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/forestry/cpaf040/8203130?redirectedFrom=fulltext t