Biodiversity after the Black Death. The plague or black death swept across Europe and the UK (from 1347 - 1353, resulting in millions of deaths.  Some studies suggest that it killed between a third and half of the population.  As a result, there was a much reduced workforce, villages were deserted, farmland was abandoned, traditional land and woodland management fell by the wayside.  It was suggested that all of this lead to a significant rewilding event and an increase in biodiversity - both plant and animal. However, an analysis at York University of fossil pollen studies across Europe suggests a 'different story’.  Plant diversity did not increase after the plague, in fact it fell. Plant diversity fell for the next 150 years.  This suggests that some plant species depend on the human disturbance within the various ecosystems (farming, grazing, woodland management, all help seed dispersal etc).  However, mediaeval practices were far gentler than today’s mechanised, industrial scale farming and the clear cut felling of woodlands. Ploughs were pulled by oxen or hand, woodlands were managed by coppicing etc.  So reducing human activity does not always lead to a 'rebound of nature’. The contribution of small woodlands. Over the centuries, our woodlands and forests have been ‘decimated’.  Our woodland / forest cover has been reduced to a small percentage of what it was by farming, felling, building of transport networks and the expansion of towns and cities.  Consequently, there now exist many small patches of woodland in an an agricultural landscape. These ‘islands’ differ in size, degree of isolation, and age. It would be easy to dismiss such ‘islands’ are being of no importance.  However, recent studies suggest that they can make a significant contribution to the biodiversity of the landscape, partly through the ‘edge effect’. The edges of woodlands are exposed to the surrounding environment. Consequently, they receive more sunlight and often nutrients from the surrounding agricultural land.  They are generally richer in species like brambles, hawthorn, willow, offering food for deer, butterflies and other species.  They may also store more carbon in the topsoil than older woodlands - acting as carbon sinks.  As the edges of these woodlands tend to be drier and hotter than woodland itself, there is a lower risk of tick borne disease as fewer tick larvae survive under such conditions.  They are therefore making a significant contribution to diversity and ecosystem services in an agricultural landscape. Such small and often isolated woodlands need to be managed. so they do not become overrun by ivy and bracken if they are to contribute to the diversity of the landscape. A singular advantage of owning a woodland with an edge is that it may offer a good view of the surrounding landscape, which one might sit and enjoy. [caption id="attachment_43124" align="aligncenter" width="675"] View from a scottish woodland[/caption] For further information about the edge effect see  Julian Evans' video on woodlandTV at YouTube : [embed]https://youtu.be/D2buIXiz1sk?si=zhsUiter2pjvyZAv[/embed]

   My name is Katy and I have been in childcare all my working life.   I qualified as a Nursery Nurse in 1986, working in inner city State Nursery schools in St Anns, Nottingham; before becoming a home based childminder in 2005. Although homebased, we are outside every day with trips to country parks, the canal and woods.  When I was a little girl, I remember my parents talking to me at length about trees, wildlife and flowers. I was always outside, collecting conkers, climbing trees and planting acorns and so I grew up with an interest in nature. I passed this on to my own children and am now passing it on to my child-minding children. I regularly meet folk who cannot tell an Ash tree from a Beech Tree, or do not know what a conker or sweet chestnut will grow into.   One little girl at my setting, aged 5, who had just started school was doing an observational painting when she said to me, “my teacher doesn’t call them daffodils Katy, she calls them flowers”    : (  It is so important for children to learn about nature, a flower is not just a flower, the same as a tree is not just a tree. Trees have different bark, leaves, branch structure, each playing a specific role in the ecosystem. Learning these facts fosters a personal connection and encourages children to care for and protect the environment. Tree, plant and animal identification improves observational skills, memory retention and an understanding of biodiversity. Because of my love for nature and my job, I have just bought a wood with my childminding colleague and friend, Caroline. It was called Ruddock wood.  [Cotgrave, near Nottingham, Nottinghamshire].  Ruddock is an archaic British term for Robin Redbreast, so we renamed it Robin wood.   In Sept 2026 ,we will both be changing from home-based childminders to forest childminders, working in the wood with our eight charges aged 3 months to 4 years from early morning to evening four days a week, throughout the year.   It is this full forest experience, using the forest school ethos, where children are immersed in nature-based play, that results in the child being deeply engaged and involved, empowering them to explore their surroundings with curiosity, critical thinking and independence.  It allows them to be physically active, using their whole bodies, they take risks, which in turn promotes resilience, creativity and develops social skills, this improves their mental health and emotional well-being. In Robin wood, the children are learning all the time, from tree identification, they understand what a beech husk is and search for beechnuts, they know acorns grow into oak trees and regularly use the word nocturnal when talking about night animals. Other skills normally not associated with preschool children include, whittling wood, sawing logs using hacksaws and bowsaws, they hammer nails into their sawn offcuts and use flints and steels to start fires, cooking lunch from scratch. We aim to educate people on the benefits of outdoor learning to ensure our young people grow up as well-rounded individuals with a passion for the outdoors. Contact on 07817 972321 Woodlands.co.uk are the proud sponsors of The Young Lives Foundation (YLF) for 2026 The Young Lives Foundation (charity no: 1119528) is an award-winning independent children’s charity in Kent supporting young people to thrive through effective advocacy, mentoring and youth programmes, including through woodlands based initiatives.

“Every tree is held up by its own history, the very bones of its ancestors…Jake has gained a new awareness of how her life is being held up by unseen layers, girded by lives that came before her own. And by a series of crimes and miracles, accidents and choices, sacrifices and mistakes, all of which have landed her in this particular body and delivered her to this day”.  And so, we find ourself as reader, embroiled in the history of several generations of the Greenwood family, as we trace their mixed fortunes from the great depression through to a dystopian future of a ruined planet and the corporate greed that has destroyed it.  The theme of this book and the reason why it has been reviewed here is the connection to trees, woodland and forestry which runs through the narrative. The dependence on trees manifests itself in the chosen professions of each generation of the Greenwood family. From small landowner and wood cutter; to business tycoon, environmental campaigner, carpenter and research scientist. The woodland theme is ever present and is sure to engage those who have an interest in trees and their changing role in our world over time. I don’t propose to give away the details of the story here but suffice to say that I found it interesting enough to keep me looking forward to the next instalment as an unchallenging bedtime read. In this sense it accomplishes its principle aim as a novel in engaging the reader but whether it succeeds any further in providing either historical insight or poignant social comment on the environment, will be up to others to make their own judgement. “What are families other than fictions? Stories told about a particular cluster of people for a particular reason? And like all stories, families are not born, they’re invented, pieced together from love and lies and nothing else. And through these messy means, so too might this poor, destitute child become -for good and for ill- a Greenwood.” Greenwood is frequently sentimental and at times outright mawkish and not quite artful enough to convey any real depth of emotion, especially with regard to parenthood, death and particularly so with trees. I also felt there was a limited success in the treatment of the great depression and the effect this had on the places that we are taken to on our journey across the impoverished Canadian landscape of the early twentieth century. There was a missed opportunity here for greater descriptive flair with the writing, to fully evoke the abject misery of a brutalised population.   The plot itself also relied a little heavily on contrivance and simplification to explain the actions of the protagonists…why was RJ Holt so keen to recover a journal that didn’t seem to contain anything particularly incriminating? And why didn’t Jake indulge the specious legal ramblings of Silas and save her island, the trees and humanity itself? “And, most important of all, she’ll establish a lab in this very office and hire Knut back, along with the world’s brightest minds in dendrology, and together they’ll discover a cure for the withering that will save the trees not only here, but everywhere.” And so it was, that as we cantered towards the final chapters at a rewarding pace, I experienced a sinking feeling that the storyline was going to just peter out rather than conclude… a little like the Greenwood family itself and the ravaged earth that they had lived on.

Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) are some of England’s most remarkable natural places. With over 4,100 sites across the country, they showcase the very best of our wildlife, habitats, and geology - collectively covering around 1.1 million hectares (about 8% of England). Owning a SSSI woodland is a special opportunity. As a custodian of one of these nationally important areas, you play a meaningful part in protecting and enhancing our natural heritage for generations to come. Many owners find this a rewarding way to connect more deeply with their land and its wildlife.  Beyond their conservation value, SSSIs can also offer quiet places for recreation, provide opportunities for scientific study, and deliver wider benefits such as clean water, flood management, carbon storage, and pollination. Because of their importance, some activities on SSSIs need to be carefully managed. The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 sets out a list of operations that require consent from Natural England before going ahead—such as tree work, drainage changes, or certain types of recreational activity. Most owners find the process straightforward, and it helps ensure that any work supports the special features of the site. More guidance is available at Sites of special scientific interest: managing your land - GOV.UK When purchasing land, conveyancing checks will normally confirm whether it lies within a SSSI. You can also explore this yourself via the MAGIC map system, and further information about individual sites is available at designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk. Natural England is there to help. Through good management advice, and tailored guidance, they work alongside landowners to support positive management and help sites deliver for nature recovery. Open communication is encouraged, as is collaboration with neighbouring landowners—particularly for larger-scale matters such as deer or squirrel management. Many traditional woodland practices, including coppicing, natural regeneration, and managing invasive species, fit well with SSSI conservation and are often recommended. Some protected features may be less visible, such as fungi or particular bird communities, but the focus is on looking after the habitats that support them. Although caring for a SSSI may feel like a responsibility at first, it can be hugely rewarding. Owners frequently enjoy the sense of purpose, connection to nature, and contribution to biodiversity. Support, advice, and in many cases grant or stewardship options are available—meaning even small woodland owners can make a real and lasting positive difference. Adrian Jowitt  Principal advisor on woodland policy, Natural England.

Researchers at the Animal and Plant Health Authority (APHA) has been working of an oral contraceptive that will hopefully offer a way to reduce grey squirrel populations in a humane and effective manner.  The contraceptive targets a mammalian hormone known as GnRH [Gonadotropic Releasing Hormone].  This hormone stimulates squirrels to ovulate or produce testosterone.  The contraceptive stimulates the production of antibodies against the GnRH so that the animals are rendered sterile.  However, there are problems with the contraceptive. It affects other species, such voles, wood mice, and dormice if they feed in the ‘traps’. Ensuring its effective means of delivery to grey squirrels alone. To address these issues, APHA has be experimenting with different designs of baited ‘traps / feeders’ to deliver the contraceptive so that only grey squirrels can enter.  The bait for these ‘traps / feeders’ is hazelnut butter mixed with rhodamine B.  The rhodamine B is added as it causes the fur of grey animals that have taken the bait to fluoresce under UV light, it may also colour the fur of the squirrel to PINK. Red squirrels cannot reach the bait as they are not heavy enough to trigger the internal mechanism of the trap / feeder.  A recent test of the mechanism revealed 19,000 visits by grey squirrels but only 9 by mice, so it does effectively distinguish between different woodland species.  There is now a plan to test the traps / feeders on a much larger scale in Cumbria, Northumberland, South Scotland and Lancashire.  Perhaps technology may be used to follow the behaviour of the animals at the 'traps' - e.g. trail cameras / infra red photography. Modelling by APHA of the contraceptive and modified traps suggests that grey populations might drop by half within six years.  Other methods to reduce the grey squirrel numbers include: The introduction of Pine Martens in suitable areas, which predate more successfully on grey squirrels, as the red ones are somewhat nimbler. Incentives for landowners to create more woodland.   Further information : https://aphascience.blog.gov.uk/2018/10/09/red-squirrel/

Pteridium aquilinum otherwise known as Bracken, is a common fern in many woodlands.  It is a vigorous and resilient species found throughout the UK.  When trees are felled or spaces appear in woodlands, bracken is quick to colonise taking advantage of the increased light. It grows quickly and its fronds can limit the growth of young trees through its dense shading. Similarly at the end of a growing season, the dying fronds can literally smother germinating seedlings and young saplings. Before dying down, bracken can store many materials in its extensive underground rhizome system.  It can tolerate adverse weather and difficult soil conditions  but generally prefers not to be in waterlogged  soils. It is not subject to significant grazing pressure or attack by insect pests or pathogens.  Consequently, it is a highly competitive species, reducing biodiversity.  Some woodland plants can survive in its presence, if they grow in early spring before the emergence of the fronds. [caption id="attachment_5892" align="alignleft" width="240"] A TICK[/caption] Bracken contains metabolites, which when ingested by animals, like cattle, have been linked to cancer of the bladder. It contains a toxin Ptaquiloside and the young leaves when crushed or eaten release hydrogen cyanide. Bracken is also known to harbour ticks, which can spread Lyme Disease. So, it not surprising that bracken is regarded as a weed by managers of woodland, field and pasture; it needs to be controlled, preferably eliminated.  But how to do this is problematic.  A number of strategies have been employed with varying degrees of success.  In woodland, the main objective is to suppress its vigour so that saplings can fully establish themselves . In the past, bracken had a number of uses – for example, as animal bedding which was later composted to give a nutrient-rich mulch.  Also, used for thatching, as a source of potash (pot ash = plant ashes soaked in water in a pot giving a soluble form of potassium K+).  This harvesting of bracken in historical times probably helped limit its spread. However, it is now spreading and its dominance in some areas / habitats is a concern. [caption id="attachment_15642" align="alignleft" width="300"] Rolling bracken[/caption] Bracken can be weakened by the cutting or crushing of the fronds, particularly if this is repeated on a regular basis.  This is both time consuming and expensive. Ploughing the soil, this cuts the underground rhizomes, exposing them on the  surface where they might dry out or freeze.  Ploughing has to be done carefully, as can significantly disturb the soil which can lead to erosion. Pigs can have the same effect as ploughing if the soil is shallow.  Generally these methods are now used. Other techniques included the burning of leaf litter and woody material but this has little effect on reducing the vitality of the bracken, in fact, the release of nutrients from the resulting ash may encourage the growth of the bracken.  Wood chip mulches are similarly ineffective, as are artificial mulches / membranes (difficult to secure them). Herbicides, such as asulam and glyphosate are effective in reducing fronds emerging after its application.  Asulam did little harm to young trees and other plant species, however its use is no longer approved of.  The use of glyphosate is also problematic. It has been suggested that it may be geotoxic & carcinogenic [EFSA 2017 Risk Assessment: Glyphosate]. The UK considered a ban, but as of last year its use was still allowed. Recent work [by Forestry England et al] has revealed an alternative herbicide that may be useful in controlling bracken - namely amidosulfuron. It works by inhibiting enzymes which control amino acid and protein metabolism.  It is thought to have low toxicity to mammals, and is stabile in light. Early trials indicate that it might be suitable for the suppression of bracken in strands of norway spruce, oaks, scots pine, sitka spruce and silver birch. [caption id="attachment_42998" align="aligncenter" width="700"] During the Age of Dinosaurs,  ferns (Polypodiophyta) were among the most abundant ground level vegetation and a significant food source for many herbivorous dinosaurs.[/caption]

The UK generally experiences a temperate oceanic climate, which is characterised by mild temperatures, moderate rainfall, and relatively small temperature changes between the seasons.  It is not surprising that there have been some 500 species successfully introduced to gardens and arboreta since 1500. This compares to the thirty something native tree species.  It is perhaps not surprising that introduced species of conifer are used to make up the bulk of plantations / forests for timber production.  Of these, Sitka Spruce is the most common; the others are Scots pine (a native species) Corsican pine,  Norway spruce European larch Hybrid larch Japanese larch Douglas fir and  Lodgepole pine With the exception of Scot’s pine, all are introduced species.  Sitka Spruce accounts for one fifth of forest cover in the UK and half of the timber produced.  The 'value' of Sitka is that it :- grows in a wide range of sites / soils tolerates wind exposure has a high initial growth rate is not a favourite of deer, especially if alternatives are available. gives high yields of timber However, there are problems with being over reliant on a limited number of species.  Three significant challenges could be   Climate change Extreme weather events Introduced pests and pathogens. Our climate is changing to hotter, drier summers coupled with milder, wetter winters.  Extreme weather events, like the storm of 1987 can reek devastation of large areas of forest.   Pests and diseases can rapidly spread through plantations / forests that are essentially monocultures.  The globalisation of world trade has made it 'easier' for pathogens and pests to move around.  Recent years has seen a significant increase in disease, for example, needle blight and phytophthora; also the pest - the appearance of the eight toothed spruce bark beetle.  There is a finite risk that something could arrive and devastate Sitka Spruce populations, and have dramatic effects on the timber industry.  Worse still would be the arrival of multiple pests or pathogens which could initiate a collapse of a forest ecosystem. If the range of tree species planted was increased then the impact of such introductions would hopefully be reduced.  There is also some evidence that a variety of species helps improve resistance to natural disturbances and offers a degree of resilience (though mixed species stands are not always more  resistant to drought).  Consequently, work is underway to determine which, if any, other conifer species might be planted to  Reduce the reliance on traditional timber-producing species Increase resilience and diversify commercial forests. Between 2015 & 2018, Forestry Research Et al. set up across the country a number of clear fell sites, these ranged from Breckland in the east to northern Scotland.  The sites offered a range of soil types and different weather conditions.  The experimental plots measured some 32 x 32 meters, and the trees were spaced 1.9m apart.  The 25 trees ar the centre of each plot were measured throughout the experiment.  Each site studied the establishment and growth of some 19 species.  Scots Pine was planted at each site as a 'control' as it was anticipated that it would establish and grow at all trial sites.  Douglas Fir was also included in these trials as it was thought to be 'under used' in national planting schemes [it only represents 4% of the UK total coniferous growing area], and might be used in a wider range of sites than at present.   The trees at each site had their height and root collar diameter measured, survival was also recorded. Trees included in these trials trials included  Norway spruce Noble fir Grand fir Pacific silver fir Maritime pine Western red cedar Leyland cypress, amongst others. The trials have yielded some interesting observations.  There were significant differences in the performance of the various species at the different locations.  For example, growth and establishment of most trees tested was poorest at Thetford on the Breckland. Interestingly, the inclusion of Douglas Fir proved worthwhile as it performed well, establishing and growing well even on poor / infertile soils, such as that at Thetford.  Data from Europe suggests that it can even maintain growth when experiencing draught, so it would appear to be more versatile than previously thought.  It could also prove to be a viable alternative to Sitka spruce, especially in the south or eastern parts of the UK where it may become hotter and drier in the future.   Another species that did quite well was Maritime Pine, which is thought to be relatively resistant to needle blight (as compared to Corsican pine) and it dealt well with the dryness at Thetford.  Unfortunately, it was not included in the trial Scottish sites.  It would seem to have potential as a fast growing and robust species on sheltered, free draining sites. Other species did not fare well, for example, Macedonian Pine did not establish well on any of the Scottish sites.  European silver fir performed poorly at all sites, and largely failed at Thetford.  It, together with pacific silver fir, grand fir, western red cedar, and coast redwood may not be suited for establishment on clear fell sites, though they might be ok in more shaded conditions beneath other trees.  The Oriental and Serbian Spruce did not establish on any of the sites. Further details of these trials can be found here: https://academic.oup.com/forestry/advance-article/doi/10.1093/forestry/cpaf048/8229725?login=false  or as a PDF here: https://academic.oup.com/forestry/advance-article/doi/10.1093/forestry/cpaf048/8229725 ,

Whilst it can be amusing to watch the antics of a grey squirrel hopping about in your garden, they are generally seen as a pest.  In your garden, you might find some of your bulbs have disappeared or in the fruit season, some of your soft fruits might be ‘missing’.  However, in woodland and forests they are adept at stripping bark from trees, which obviously wounds the trees, distorts growth and may allow for the entry of pathogens.  Grey squirrel damage to trees in England and Wales has been estimated to cost £37m a year in lost timber value and reduced carbon capture. The squirrels tend to select vigorous trees as they have a bark with a rich sap content, such as  sycamore, beech, birch and oak.  It has been suggested that they targeted such trees for their sugar content, as much bark stripping activity occurs in May to July, a period when the tree would be actively photosynthesising and transporting sugars around the tree in the phloem tissue (bast).  However, recent work suggests that they may be after micro-nutrients, such as calcium.   [caption id="attachment_41889" align="alignleft" width="300"] squirrel[/caption] Scientists from Bangor University have investigated and compared the microbiome of grey and red squirrels.  The microbiome refers to the make-up on the bacteria and other microbes present in the gut.  They help in the breaking down of food materials, and the production of vitamins.  They found the intestinal (caecum*) microbiome or microbiota of grey squirrels is more diverse than that of red squirrels, and where there were bacterial species in common then the amounts differed. These findings might help explain why grey squirrels can, for example,  digest acorns readily despite their tannin content, whereas red struggle to make full use of this plentiful food supply.   The grey squirrel gut also has a bacterium - Oxalobacter.  This bacterium can change the insoluble calcium from tree bark into a more digestible form.  Calcium levels in trees tend to rise in late spring / early summer when squirrels indulge in bark stripping.  Red squirrels strip bark less frequently than greys, this may be due to their somewhat more limited, less diverse microbiome.  The microbial diversity of grey squirrels may enable them to use a greater range of materials than the red squirrels, perhaps explaining in part their spread and the displacement of the red squirrel. Another factor leading to the displacement of the red squirrel has been the spread of the squirrel pox virus into the red squirrel population.  This virus has little effect on grey squirrels but leads to sickness and often death in red squirrels.  The grey squirrel also harbours another threat to red squirrels - the adenovirus.  Again grey squirrels seem unaffected by this, but red squirrels develop severe intestinal damage.  This difference may again be related to the difference in the microbiome of the two types of squirrel. Note : the caecum is a pouch within the gut, between the small and large intestine where the digestion of cellulose etc takes place, it is 'rich' in bacteria. More detail on grey squirrels in the links below :  https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/jmm/10.1099/jmm.0.001793 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38354038/ https://www.bangor.ac.uk/news/2024-02-21-gut-bacteria-may-explain-why-grey-squirrels-outcompete-reds-new-research and https://rfs.org.uk/insights-publications/rfs-reports/report-overview-the-cost-of-grey-squirrel-damage-to-woodland-in-england-and-wales/