The yew is one of our native conifers, the others are the Scots Pine and Juniper.  The yew is exceptional in terms of its longevity.  The life span of the tree may run into the thousands of years, but more typically a tree may live for 1500 years.  Somewhat unusual features of the Yew are that   it is dioecious. That is, there are separate male and female trees.  This promotes cross fertilisation, increasing genetic diversity. when it sets seed, they are not in the typical conifer cone. They form in a fleshy red aril - a berry-like structure The yew is a medium sized conifer, that may reach a height of some 20 metres.  It has dark green needle-like leaves, which are somewhat flattened (see image).  The bark has a red / brown colour, which has an increasingly flaky appearance as the tree ages.  Again as the trees mature they may develop hollow trunks and splinter apart to form multiple stems.  This seems to be a regenerative strategy. This is particularly apparent in the Fortingall Yew, which is indeed is a very ancient tree, possibly the same age as Stonehenge! [caption id="attachment_43351" align="aligncenter" width="700"] Yew in a woodland setting[/caption] The Yew is distributed across the UK but is found more often in Southern and Central England, where it is associated with well drained soils seated on chalk and limestone.  It is also to be found in managed situations, ranging from church yards, large estates and parklands, to hedgerows in urban gardens.  In some places, the trees are managed to form topiary.     Yew trees can thrive in woodlands settings, though its dense evergreen canopy can create deep shade at ground level.  As the light intensity is reduced, this can reduce the diversity of the ground flora.  However, the trees offers shelter in the winter months to various birds (such as the Chaffinch, Robin, and Wren) and mammals.  Most of the tree is toxic, the only edible part is the red aril that surrounds the seeds.   The seeds contain high concentrations of taxine alkaloids, which if ingested interfere with the electrical signals in the heart.  In recent years, yew trees have been planted in large numbers in China to provide material for the extraction of one of its toxic chemicals for the anti-cancer drug taxol/paclitaxel. This drug acts by interfering with the division of cancer cells.  However, some birds can eat the aril and the seed, the seed then passes through the gut undigested.  This aids the dispersal of the seeds over a significant area  The toxicity of the tree is important in that it protects against grazing by deer etc.  Yew wood is noted for its red/brown colour and its durability.  In the past, it was greatly valued in the making of long bows due to its flexibility and strength.  The rich colour and grain of the wood mean that is used to make veneers and in furniture making.  As the wood is hard and dense, it is favoured by woodturners to create bowls and lamp bases.  The wood is also used in the making of violins and other musical instruments.  Yew wood is remarkably resistant to decay / rot, which makes it particularly suitable for outdoor furniture.  However, as the tree is slowing growing and often ‘twisted’ and/or knotted, it is difficult to obtain large planks of the wood in any quantity. For many centuries, Yew has been associated with churchyards and this is where many ancient yews are to be found.  In a Christian context, the yew represents eternal life and resurrection. Its evergreen nature being symbolic of eternal life. Some yews may predate the building of the churches, pagan tradition associated the tree with winter festivals and the cycle of life.  Further details of the association of Yew with religion and folklore, see https://www.whitedragon.org.uk/articles/yew.htm

Last year was not a good year for bumblebees.   Despite the warmth and sunny days of late Spring and Summer, they did not fare well.  Overall, numbers dropped by about a fifth.  We know this thanks to the efforts of the Bumblebee Conservation Trust.  The trust runs a nationwide bee walk scheme each year.  This involves hundreds of trained volunteers, walking across a thousand plus fixed routes, counting the bumblebees that they see.  This enables the Trust to calculate the number of bumblebees observed for each kilometre walked. This gives a measure of the health of bumblebee populations. Last year’s walks indicated ‘historic lows’ for 15 of our native species of bumblebee.  Red tailed bumblebees were particularly affected. After a relatively mild winter, many queen bumblebees emerged early from hibernation.  They then met with the rain and cold of early Spring. Though a bumblebee can cope to some degree with cold - by shivering to generate heat, the rain left them unable to forage in search of pollen and nectar.  Queen bumblebees have to establish a colony singlehandedly.  They may lay eggs, but if they remain within the nest to keep the larvae warm then they starve.  If they leave to find food then the larvae die in the cold.   So the weather is critical to the establishment and success of a colony.  The first brood of eggs need to be warmed by the queen, but she needs to be able to leave to feed herself and collect food for the growing larvae.  Last year, the establishment of colonies and rearing of the first generation of worker bumblebees was limited.  Indeed, it was estimated that the worker population in June fell by perhaps 50% for some species. [caption id="attachment_43455" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Coming into land[/caption] Sadly, the disappointing numbers for 2024 is part of a long term decline in bumblebee numbers, with some species become extinct (either locally or nationally).  This decline is associated with  Changing climate.  With global warming, we are experiencing warmer, wetter winters and hotter, drier summers, coupled with extreme weather events.  Bumblebee nests can be flooded by heavy rain. Habitat fragmentation.  Many woods and wild flower meadows have been lost over the decades, so that bumblebees (and other animals) find it difficult to move around in the disconnected landscape. Biological corridors have been lost.  Local populations can become inbred, which leads to a loss of genetic variation.  Flower-rich meadows which offered pollen and nectar are now a rarity.  Even brownfield sites can offer food for bumblebees - from the ‘weeds’ growing in them. The expansion of agriculture, towns and motorways. The countryside has been gradually devoured by the expansion of agriculture, towns and transport routes. These have contributed to the loss of natural ecosystems, like the meadows mentioned above, and also hedgerows. Modern agriculture also makes considerable use of many pesticides and herbicides.  The neonicotinoids [neonics] were used extensively as seed dressings for crops, such as oil seed rape and maize.  Even when exposed to very low concentrations of these chemicals, bees and bumblebees suffered. More recently it has been demonstrated that sulfoxaflor, another pesticide affects bumblebees.  It can reduce the number of workers and queens produced by a colony by 50%. [caption id="attachment_43460" align="aligncenter" width="675"] buff tailed bumblebee[/caption] As ever, local bumblebee populations can be helped by ensuring that gardens have a wide diversity of nectar-rich flowers, plus “No mow May” also has a positive impact.  

We can communicate in many ways, other animals may  message each by vocalising or gesturing.  Some release air-borne chemicals (pheromones) to attract a mate.  Plants also communicate by chemical signals that they release into the environment. The most obvious example is the release of scents to attract pollinators.   These floral scents are usually oils, made from volatile organic compounds (VOCs).  VOCs are carbon based compounds, such as the terpenes. They usually have a strong and pleasant odour.  They form partt of the scent of many plants, for example, honeysuckle, roses, jasmine, lilac, and mock orange.  Different plants produce different scents.  These different chemical signatures help pollinators identify particular species, and locate the nectar on offer. The VOCs produced by ripe fruit help attract animals that assist in seed dispersal. [caption id="attachment_43370" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Buff tailed bumblebee visiting a foxglove[/caption] VOCs are also produced by leaves when plants are under attack.  These may deter the attacking organism directly, e.g. caterpillars, or they may attract an organism that predates upon the herbivore. When pollen beetles feed on oil seed rape, the plants release VOCs which attract the attention of insects (a type of wasp). The wasps lay their eggs in the larvae of the pollen beetles. The pollen beetle larvae are then ‘eaten alive’, by the developing wasp larvae.  Sometimes, VOCs are produced by stressed or attacked plants,  these VOCs ‘warn’ nearby plants of the same species. These plants can then activate their defences before they are attacked. This helps ensure the survival of some of the population. Recently, it has been suggested that mycorrhizal systems act as a physical and chemical ‘means of communication’ between the trees in a woodland, in what has been termed the ‘wood wide web’. The term was coined by Dr. Suzanne Simard, a forest ecologist at the University of British Columbia to describe the complex relationships between fungi and plants in woodland ecosystems.  Interestingly, VOCs can influence air quality and atmospheric processes.  In a woodland,  the scent of pine or other conifers may permeate the air.  Pines release volatile compounds, such as alpha-pinene.  Recent research has established that these volatile compounds / vapours are not only responsible for the characteristic scent, but also contribute to the formation of aerosols in the atmosphere* both in and around such woodlands and forests.  In the presence of sunlight, VOCs can interact with the gas nitric oxide to form ground level ozone, which contributes to smog formation. Forests can be a significant source of VOC emissions. The production of VOCs is affected by environmental  conditions.  VOCs release generally goes up with an increase in temperature, as the plants metabolism increase.  An increase in temperature also helps in the evaporation / volatilisation of plant oils and scents. Water availability and light intensity also affect VOC release.  * An aerosol is a ‘mixture’ of very small particles (solid or liquid) in air; other examples of aerosols include mist, cigarette smoke, or car exhaust fumes Addendum : Heavier and far rarer VOCs are the sesquiterpenes, larger molecules that trees in the Amazon release when exposed to drought.  These reactive molecules help form tiny particles that seed clouds and scatter sunlight. These emissions could change the weather and climate over the whole region.  For full details see : https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-emitted-never-before-seen-chemicals-during-drought/  

Butterflies form part of the woodland fauna.  Different species occur in different niches. Glade butterflies, like the speckled wood.  These butterflies like open, sunny clearings in the woods.  The speckled wood may be recognised by its brown and cream spotted wings.  It may be seen in partially shaded woodland with dappled sunlight. The  males may rest in a ‘pool of sunlight’, but will rise quickly if disturbed. Both male and female feed on honeydew, and do not feed on flowers, except when aphid numbers / activity is low.    Honeydew is the sticky, sugar-rich fluid that is ‘produced’ by aphids (greenfly and blackly) and some other insects.  As these insects feed on plant sap,  their mouthparts penetrate into the sugar-conducting tissue - the phloem.   This passes into the gut of the animal and any undigested material is exuded as a sticky drop.  [caption id="attachment_43415" align="aligncenter" width="675"] A speckled wood at rest[/caption] Canopy dwellers, like the purple emperor spend most of their time high up in the trees.  They make use of the leaves for feeding of the caterpillars, or indeed breeding.  The adult butterflies feed on tree sap or aphid honeydew. Dwellers of the woodland edges.  The comma favours woodland edges and open woodland, where it breeds and hibernates.  It may be seen in the vicinity of nettles and willows.  Its distinctive scalloped wings and their colouring help conceal hibernating adults amongst the dead leaves of autumn. [caption id="attachment_43408" align="aligncenter" width="675"] The Comma[/caption] By occupying different places and feeding on different things, the various species avoid direct competition with one another.  Sadly, woodland butterflies have been in decline in recent times, as have many native butterfly species across the UK.  This decline has been attributed to a number of factors : Lack or loss of traditional woodland management, such as coppicing and grazing, which allow for the creation of open, light filled spaces. Habitat fragmentation.  Many butterflies travel over relatively short distances.  If woodlands become divided or lost through urban sprawl, motorway creation etc., then populations become isolated and genetic variation (and hence, diversity) is lost.  Localised extinction may result. Climate Change. Extreme weather events (like heatwaves in May), changing patterns of rainfall are thought to disrupt the natural chronology of butterfly life cycles. Pesticides and pollution.  Woodland areas may be exposed to the application of pesticides and fertilisers added to adjacent farmland.  Even sub lethal doses of pesticides can affect butterfly life cycles.  The deposition of nitrogen rich pollutants can encourage the overgrowth of botanical thugs (like nettles), so food sources for caterpillars are lost. For more information on butterflies and their life cycles, see this blog https://www.woodlands.co.uk/blog/flora-and-fauna/woodland-butterflies/and visit https://butterfly-conservation.org/butterflies 

Recent research at the Okinawa Institute of Science suggests that the fungi evolved many millions of years ago, indeed perhaps before plants colonised land.  The common ancestor of present day fungi may have arisen 1.4 billion years ago, which is long before anything resembling a land plant appeared.  Next to come were the red algae (probably).  Soft bodied animals appeared in the Ediacaran period, some 635 to 542 million years ago. The first simple land plants appeared approximately 500 million years ago, evolving from green algae in the Cambrian period. The dating of the appearance of the fungi is dependent on the study of few fossil forms of fungi; and DNA studies to create a molecular clock.  The clock is created by a study of mutations, and what have been termed ‘horizontal gene transfers’.  If, as suggested, fungi predate plants by eons, then they had millions of years to evolve and diversify.  They probably formed associations with primitive algae and / or bacteria. It was these organisms that were the first colonists of land, along the damp shorelines of ancient seas.  Fungi are ‘chemical engineers’, they can weather rock, freeing elements like phosphorus and other nutrients.  They likely built the first thin ‘soils’, turning bare rock into something could support the tentative roots of the earliest plants.  Essentially, the land was prepared for colonisation by the early fungi. Even today, fungi can colonise hostile places.  They are often the first organisms to arrive to wildfire burn areas, in the debris of volcanic eruptions, and in pyroclastic flows.  The eruption of Mount St.Helens spewed mud and ash over vast areas, leaving behind a ‘martian’ landscape of grey rubble and ash.  But within 10 days, fungi were beginning to bioengineer the area.  Fine filamentous hyphen threads were beginning of attach to the smaller pebbles / material thrown out of the volcano.  Such fungi have been called ‘phoenicoid fungi” - a reference to the Phoenix rising from the ashes.  They are the first responders.  In California, members of some Native American tribes historically collected burn morels for food after a fire burn.  There is also the possibility of fungi being used eventually to clean up polluted environments and in phytoremediation of abandoned mines, landfill sites etc.  They might also tackle PFAs - these are group of over 10,000 man-made chemicals often called  "forever chemicals".  because they don't easily break down in the environment or the human body.  

For many years, people who lived near peatlands would cut sods of peat, allow them to dry and use them for fuel.  This, and other human activities such as Draining for agriculture, Deforestation Burning for ‘sporting’ purposes Testing of ordinance Tin streaming (in the case of Dartmoor) have left areas of peatland in a parlous state.  Often there are deep gullies and ditches, so water runs off and the peat dries out, no new material is formed  It is estimated that some 80% of peatlands in the UK are in a damaged or degraded state. They now represent a carbon source rather than a store. When healthy, peatlands can store twice as much carbon as forests, playing a part in reducing global emissions of carbon dioxide and helping to reduce / control flooding, and supporting biodiversity. Sadly, peat forms very slowly, forming (roughly) at a rate one millimetre per year. Peat is formed by the decomposition of plant material under water logged conditions. So at its deepest point, the peat on Dartmoor in nine metres in depth and therefore represent thousands of years of history and can be an archaeological treasure trove. [caption id="attachment_43175" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Scottish moorland[/caption] The UK’s Climate Change Committee has a target that 50% of upland peatlands and 25% of lowland peatlands should be restored to a natural condition by 2050.  If nothing is done, and the climate becomes warmer and drier, then the peatlands of the south west of England could be a thing of the past. Efforts are being made on areas such as Dartmoor to restore the landscape.  The gullies and ditches are being blocked, so that rainwater is retained and the water table is raised so that the wetness of the area is restored.  BY ‘reprofilling’ the landscape, pools will again form and sphagnum moss and other plants will grow and the process of peat formation will begin again.   In recent years, a project  [The South West Peatland Partnership] funded by Natural England South West Water & The National Trust has restored some 1700 hectares of damaged peat bog in the South West.  Whilst this is a long term project, some promising results have been observed such as an increases in the number and species of dragonflies.  They represent food for the next trophic (feeding) level, so that perhaps in time the number of wading birds and mammals on the moor may increase. Other areas of peatland, such as the blanket bogs of Caithness and Sutherlands and the Peak District need to be monitored as they too are at risk. Details of current work can be found here.

There are some 270 species of bee to be found in the UK.  Most of these bees are solitary bees. Solitary bees do not form colonies like the honey bee, with a queen and workers. Twenty four are types of bumblebee,  although two of these bumblebees may be extinct in the UK.  Included in the bumblebee category are the carder bees. Their name relates to their ability to ‘knit’ together plant materials / fibres to form a nest*.  The six species of carder bees in the UK are listed below : The common carder bee The brown banded carder bee The moss carder bee The red shanked carder bee The ruderal carder bee The shrill carder bee The common carder bee (Bombus pascuorum) is quite widespread and is found in gardens, the edges of woodland, and farmland throughout the country.  It is a social insect, forming colonies with worker bees.  Their yearly cycle is not dissimilar to that of bumblebees.  In spring, queen carder bees emerge from hibernation and establish new colonies. These develop throughout the spring and summer, adding workers.  By late summer, new queens and males are formed, and in autumn the old queen and workers die.  The new queens overwinter and emerge in the following spring. [caption id="attachment_43305" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Common carder bee[/caption] Carder bees tend to build their nests on or near the soil surface, using moss, dried grass or similar plant material.  The shrill carder bee favours flower-rich grassland areas to build its nest.  As so many of these diverse grasslands have disappeared over the last century, it explains the rarity of this particular bee.   Carder worker bees are a ginger / warm brown colour. Carder bees are noted for their ‘long tongues’, i.e. their mouthparts have a long proboscis [feeding tube].  This allows them to reach the nectar inside flowers with a long, tubular shape (such as foxgloves, honeysuckle and clover).  It also means that they are not in direct competition with ‘shorter tongued’ bees, who can only access open flowers.    Whilst visiting flowers, they act as pollinators of both wild flowers and farmland crops. As pollinators, they help promote the transfer of pollen from plant to plant, promoting outbreeding which in turn helps maintain variation with a species. The bees actively forage from spring into autumn and can thrive in our extensively modified landscape, so they are key pollinators in both rural and urban areas. * Originally, the term a carder referred to person who combs out and cleans fibres of wool / cotton before spinning.

The silver birch and the downy birch are integral to the UK’s landscape.  They were among the first colonists of the exposed soil when the glaciers of the last Ice Age retreated.  Both species are quite widespread but silver birch is to be found on drier, ‘lighter’ soils of the South, whereas downy birch can tolerate wetter and colder conditions.  Both are pioneer species by virtue of their light, wind dispersed seeds, fast growth and ability to colonise disturbed ground, for example, clear fell woodland. They are, therefore, key species in the early stages of woodland development. They allow a rich ground flora to develop due to their open canopy, which allows light to flood in.  Their leaves decompose quite quickly and contribute to the enrichment of the soil.  Their breakdown adds humus, which helps with water retention and soil permeability.  The conditioning of the soil helps other species to come in and as the appearance of other species proceeds so the canopy tends to become denser. Birches are sometimes described as ‘nurse species’. Birch trees are relatively short lived, with a life span of sixty to one hundred years, but during that time the trees support a variety of organisms : Insects such as aphids, moth caterpillars, sawflies Birds, for example redpolls and siskins, who feed on birch seeds Small mammals who may use the trees for shelter and / or food, plus deer who may browse on the young shoots Fungi such as the polypores, fly agaric, and the various mycorrhizal fungi [e.g. the Birch Bolete] that establish connections with the roots for nutrient exchange. So birch species are valued for the creation of early woodland, for regeneration and rewinding of land.  The resilience of downy birch makes it important in more northern and upland areas.  The birches are therefore important in the formation of transitional woodland, which may then move to mature climax woodland. As a species, we have made considerable use of birch trees to create a variety of ‘products’.  Historically, the wood and bark were distilled to make birch tar and pitch, used  for waterproofing and as adhesives.  The wood, which is fine grained and pale in colour, is valuable in furniture making,  making tool handles and toys.  In northern Europe and Russia, birches were used to create pulpwood for paper / cardboard making.  As the wood burns clean and hot, it is suitable as a fuel or for charcoal making.  It may also be used as the fuel for saunas, and for the smoking of fish and meat (as a means of food preservation / flavouring).    The bark has been used to make canoes, baskets and boxes.  It was also used in roof construction and the creation of Russian manuscripts.  Birch sap is consumed in various health beverages and can be fermented produce beer, wine or vinegar.  Baltic and Nordic countries have been particularly creative in the use of birch material, down to use the twigs in their sauna whisks.