When thinking of conifers, one might feel a bit ‘schizophrenic’.  Perhaps picturing a Leylandii encroaching on your garden, whilst also remembering your Christmas tree.  Maybe the typical image of conifers is that of a tree with dark green foliage all year round.  However, this would be something of a disservice to the Conifer family - the Pinophyta, which contains an amazing variety of trees, many of which are at risk of extinction.  This group includes cedars, firs, cypresses, junipers, larches, pines, hemlocks, redwoods, spruces, and yews. [caption id="attachment_32107" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Leaves on the branchlets of Dawn Redwood[/caption] Conifers are important because They dominate vast areas of land, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere,  forming the boreal forests or taiga. Softwood from conifers accounts for approximately 45% of global timber production. Pine, spruce and larch are often grown specifically for softwood production. The wood is also used in the paper production[.and, to a lesser extent, in making plastic from chemically treated wood pulp].  Some species produce edible seeds , such as pine nuts provide foods such as pine nuts for humans and wildlife and juniper berries, which are used to flavour gin.  The Monkey Puzzle tree, (also known as the Pehuen Pine, native to Chile and Argentina) produces seeds known as piñones; traditionally harvested by indigenous communities.  [caption id="attachment_27592" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Monkey puzzle tree[/caption] To see the diversity of the Conifer family one could visit the Bedgebury Pinetum.  This is home to one of the world’s most important conifer collections.  Bedgebury was established in 1925 by Kew Gardens and the Forestry Commission.  The curator at Kew had observed that the conifers there were ‘being choked by London Smogs’.  The site at Bedgebury, situated on the Southern Kentish weald, was ideal.  It offered an escape from the pollution of London and it had wet and free draining areas, plus varied soils so it a range of conifer could be grown. The land already had some conifers that had been planted by Viscount Beresford - an evergreen enthusiast.  In 1925, some 315 trees were planted.  This year, to celebrate reaching a century, some 89 of the original trees are marked with special yellow labels.  For  its first twenty years, the pinetum was managed by William Dallimore. His diaries record in some detail the trees he planted, and the challenges faced in establishing the pinetumIf you visit, then you might walk through through Dallimore Valley, and view his legacy. Bedgebury soon became a centre for the scientific interest in conifers, their conservation, and landscape planning.  The current curator is Dan Luscombe. Apart from seeing a range of conifers, the pinetum offers a variety of activities, e.g. family cycling, mountain biking and walking, There is also the play trail or you can explore the canopy on a Go Ape tree-top adventure or challenge.  It is rumoured that the Gruffalow lurks within the grounds of the  Pinetum. There is also a cafe, serving a range of drinks, plus  breakfast and lunch options. The pinetum is open from from 8 AM to 8 PM (March 2025 to 26 October 2025), and there are charges for car parking.  

In parts of the South West,  there is open moorland but some of its features betray its history.  Running across the landscape there are faint lines.  These lines are reaves, and they are a legacy of ancient farming and land management technique.  They may run for many miles across the countryside.  Reaves were essentially walls constructed from local stone and earth, and may date back to the Bronze Age.  They were used to divide up the land for farming or grazing by livestock.     Instead of creating hedgerows, walls were built probably due to the availability of the stone [granite / slate] and the harsher climate back then. The reaves allow archaeologists some insight into the nature of ancient societies, their land use and agriculture. The area of Dartmoor and its environs offer a well preserved historic landscape {eg. The Great Western Reave) that has not been heavily ‘over-written’ by subsequent development.   In medieval times or later, hedgerows were planted along or near many of the reaves. Whilst reaves were not originally built to support hedges they sometimes became the base for hedgerows enclosing parcels of land.  Some reaves align with more recent earth banks that are topped with shrubs of hazel and hawthorn.  Many reaves have been gradually colonised over the years by various plants and animals.  The structure / integrity of some reaves has been lost as their stones / slates were ‘redeployed’ to build new dry stone walls / boundaries in the 18th and 19th centuries. Another type of boundary is the cornditch, This a bank with vertical stones on the side. Sometimes there is also an actual ditch - created where the soil was excavated to build the bank.  Cornditches separated common grazing land [open moorland] from enclosed land / fields, essentially they stopped livestock entering cultivated areas.  They may be seen around Exmoor and Dartmoor. Reaves, hedgerows, hedges, banks all serve to separate up parcels of land, but they also add character to our countryside and serve to provide continuity across the landscape for many species (plant and animal) to move around. [caption id="attachment_42471" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Woodland bank with mature trees.[/caption] Many hedges have been lost due to the expansion of agriculture and increasing urbanisation, others have fallen into disrepair and some are flailed within an ’inch of their life’. [caption id="attachment_25527" align="aligncenter" width="600"] A flailed hedge[/caption] A sustainable way of managing tree lined hedge banks and a better alternative to the excessive cutting with heavy machinery is the traditional crafty of hedgelaying. This technique involves partially cutting stems of shrubs at a diagonal angle know as ‘pleaching’. Traditionally this would have been done with hand tools such as billhooks and axes with different regions of the Country having different designs of tool. Most species can be laid but most common are shrubs like hazel, hawthorn and blackthorn with some trees such as oak, beech or birch being allowed to grow on to become mature trees known as ‘standards’. Shrubs are laid by bending over and weaving them together holding with ‘stogs’ (see the woodlands blog on How to lay a hedge).  Skilled workers declined in the later part of the 20th Century but is now on the rise again thanks to changes in land management aims and some grant funding being available. Ideally a hedge should be laid within 10 years of planting and should be and then can be regularly trimmed. After 50 years the hedge can be laid again. Some hedges, such as beech lined stone-faced hedges are not traditionally laid but trees are pollarded (cut to a height above where regrowth can be eaten by livestock or deer) on a rotation to prevent trees becoming too heavy and blowing over in the wind. This is also a good supply of timber for logs. Hedges act as biological corridors, and provide unique habitats / niches.  Even dry stone walls offer opportunities for lichens and mosses, leading to the formation of biocrusts. Hedgerows are home to some 600 different plants, 1,500 insects, 65 birds and 20 mammal species – offering food and shelter, breeding and nesting sites. Many of these species have been identified as vulnerable. The loss of hedgerows, or a decline in their quality and care would effect the populations of these species.  Hedgerows also serve to capture carbon, absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere which helps fight global warming by storing carbon in complex organic compounds.  The roots of hedgerow shrubs and trees help reduce soil erosion, stabilising the soil and improving drainage, whilst the above ground stems and leaves reduce wind speed. In towns and cities, the leaves and aerial parts of hedges can ‘catch’ roadside pollutants and particulates. Thanks to Stuart Brooking, who is the woodlands manager for Devon.

Ash dieback began to spread in Europe in the 1990’s, reaching England in 2012.  It is a fungal disease that slowly but surely interrupts a tree’s ability to transport water.   The fungus responsible is Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, which is native to Asia.  The death / loss of mature trees not only reduces carbon dioxide uptake but also represents the loss of habitats for many species of insects and other animals.  The dead trees are also a hazard to people and property. Though many ash trees have now died after infection with this fungus, there is a small glimmer of hope on the horizon.  Some British ash trees are evolving a degree of resistance to the fungus.  Scientists from Kew and Queen Mary University of London have studied the genetic makeup of many mature european ash trees, and also hundreds of young saplings (at Marden Park in Surrey).   This revealed that resistance was more commonly found in young trees - a shift in the genetics of the trees within a generation.   The resistance to the fungus is NOT complete, but if these young trees make it to reproductive maturity then there will another chance for natural selection to ‘refine ‘ the process, through their offspring. However, it may be that a careful breeding program will be needed to establish true resistance / immunity. Interestingly, ash dieback has not reached America but the emerald ash borer has.  This insect is spreading and killing trees.  It is another example of the effects of the globalisation of world trade. Insects and other animals from across the world are being ‘mixed up’, moved from their native regions to new areas where they spread and cause damage as their predators and / or parasites have not travelled with them.   Trees and shrubs are now facing challenges and threats at an unprecedented rate. see also :  https://www.qmul.ac.uk/media/news/2025/science-and-engineering/se/british-ash-woodland-is-evolving-resistance-to-ash-dieback-.html  

JAcross Europe, the red squirrel is recognised as an endangered species.  The U.K populations are at risk due due to :- Habitat loss Competition with Grey Squirrels The effects of the squirrel pox virus The last two are a result of the introduction of the grey squirrel from America in the 19th century. Red squirrels are at home in all types of woodland and may even be seen in parks and gardens, but they 'like' mixed conifer forests best.  Scotland is home to many of the U.K's red squirrels. The number of squirrels is quite small – estimates of their number vary, perhaps there are less than 300,000* across the whole of Britain.   The status of red squirrel populations is a matter of considerable interest. [caption id="attachment_42416" align="alignleft" width="300"] Screenshot[/caption]  In 2014, it was noticed that some members of the Scottish red squirrel populations had abnormal growths on their ears, snout and limbs. Further investigations found that the squirrels were suffering from leprosy.  Leprosy  is a bacterial infection,  caused by two different species of mycobacteria: Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis.   The two types of  bacteria have slightly different distributions in the squirrel populations of the U.K.  Whilst leprosy in squirrels was first reported in 2014,  it is likely that the disease has been around in squirrel populations for much, much longer, probably hundreds of years. Profesor Verena Schünemann,  Christian Urban et al have studied bacterial DNA extracted from human skeletons, dating from 400 CE to 1400 CE with deformities associated with leprosy.   They 'reconstructed' the genetic makeup of mediaeval forms of the bacterium.  Leprosy was not uncommon across Europe in mediaeval times - indeed up to the sixteenth century.   Disease, in its many forms , was a common part of life -  dysentery, diphtheria, typhoid, smallpox, and plague meant that life expectancy was limited. The last indigenous case of leprosy in the UK dates back to 1798.  In humans, leprosy causes muscle and nerve damage, which lead to deformity, blindness and disability.   Interestingly, research by Dr. Sarah Inskip has revealed that a pre-Norman skull [found in Hoxne in Suffolk] had a leprosy strain related to a form known to affect squirrels.  The same strain has also been found in medieval scandinavian skeletons.  It is possible that the  trade in squirrel pelts (and meat) could have contributed to the spread of the disease. Strong trade connections with Denmark and Sweden were in full flow in the medieval period.  Squirrel fur was also used as a lining for fine clothes and squirrels were kept as pets by some. The historical spread of leprosy is not fully understood.  The disease may have passed from squirrels to humans or vice versa in historical times.  Further study of the microbes that cause this disease (and that in squirrels) will help determine how the disease is acquired and transmitted.    The risk to human health is low. (Even so, good hygiene should be followed during any contact with wild animals). Professor Anna Meredith  (University of Edinburgh) is researching into this disease in squirrels.   Further reading / articles: https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14819991-200-virus-blamed-on-invading-squirrels/ https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aah3783 https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/oct/25/medieval-love-of-squirrel-fur-may-have-helped-spread-leprosy-study-reveals https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/10/171025103109.htm

Trees are remarkably resilient.  In various forms they have been arounds for millions of years.  They have survived asteroid impact (66 million years ago), and a series of successive ice ages.  However, in more recent times they have faced a new challenge, the relentless march of humankind. Early societies felled trees for timber for dwellings, boats*, wood for fire, making tools, as part of ‘flash and burn’ agriculture to create a ‘swidden’ to grow food.  The material felled to create a swidden was allowed to dry and then burnt, the ash released mineral nutrients into the soil for the crops.  As more complex civilisations / societies evolved, there were attempts to restore degraded forests / bare land, and  to protect forests.  The Zhou (Chou) dynasty established a ‘forestry service’ over two thousand years ago, and in India the emperor Ashoka (268 -232 BCE) ordered wide scale reforestation.  Much later in the Middles Ages there were efforts to restore degraded areas, for example, around Nuremberg in the C12th.  Most of these early efforts were concerned with increasing timber production or the mitigation of natural disasters.  In the last two centuries, significant areas of natural forest and woodland have been lost, increasing the risk of soil erosion, flooding and disease (as animals are displaced). In the last century, the percentage cover by forest / woodland in some countries (for example, the UK) was low so vast areas were planted with a single species. Fast growing species (conifers such as pines, spruce and larch) were often grown on what was regarded as marginal land, creating plantations.   In some parts of the Mediterranean, Eucalyptus was planted.  These were species that could cope with the challenging nature of the soil and / or the  topography.   Many of the European initiatives met with some success in terms of timber production and / or the stabilisation of degraded areas (for example, reducing erosion).  Such schemes also created jobs, contributing to the local economy.  But when grassland or heathland were used to create single species plantations, this was often accompanied by a loss in biodiversity. In places, the introduction of non-native species has been challenging as they have become invasive, for example, black cherry. The success of any scheme is dependent on Sound planting techniques and aftercare Selection of the right species for the area The co-operation / involvement of local peoples. Mass planting of a single species can also contribute to the rapid spread of disease / pests (e.g.bark beetles, pine procesionary moth).  Vast swathes of coniferous forest were affected by acid rain (associated with sulphur dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels) in the last century.  This was termed Waldsterben [Wald=forest + sterben=to die].   Problems such as these, coupled with increasing environmental awareness contributed to a rethink of the aims and objectives of forest management / renewal / restoration. However, there were examples where ecological recovery was good, for example, some spruce and black pine ‘monocultures’ were diversified through the planting of a understorey of broadleaved trees, as in Slovenia. In recent times, timber production, control of erosion and reduction of disaster risk remain relevant still, but the importance of biodiversity, resilience and ecosystem services are now uppermost.  There is a move from ‘quantity to quality’ of forest and woodland.  In many countries, a growing interest in recreation and tourism (recognising the importance of green space for mental and physical well being), coupled with growing environmental concerns and recognition of climate change has emerged.   Forest and woodlands across the world, from the boreal regions to the Equator are under threat.  Many have been lost or badly degraded, and are in desperate need of restoration.  Forests are no longer regarded as sources of timber, but are important providers of ecosystem services, such as the mitigation of flooding. So, in more recent times they have been efforts to restore and repair forests and woodlands.  Homogenous and dense plantations / forests in boreal regions had clearings created to allow light demanding species to establish.  Limitations have been placed on clear cutting, and the use of fencing, tree protectors have [caption id="attachment_41889" align="alignleft" width="300"] squirrel[/caption] helped to reduce browsing pressure (by deer / squirrels etc).  One means of promoting biodiversity is ensuring that the woodland / forests offer deadwood.  This provides a ‘home’ to species as varied as woodpeckers to saproxylic beetles. These beetles help break down wood so that it can be further broken down by fungi and bacteria, returning nutrients to the soil. Tree girdling was a technique used in Finland to create deadwood, it severs the conducting tissue (phloem) so that the supply of sugars is interrupted.  Thought is now given to the selection and introduction of tree species that are adapted and resilient to anticipated climate change impacts.   Though countries have adopted a variety of techniques in recent times, the extent of forest and woodland restoration has been largely limited by the funding available.  Restoration does not come cheap, funding over significant period of time is needed, and time itself for the effects of  the measures to become apparent. For detailed information on forest restoration see - https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40725-024-00235-3 Intereesting facts : Henry V111’s flag ship, the Mary Rose , was built using oak and elm. It was the first big ship of the Tudor naval fleet and it is estimated that over 600 trees were needed for its construction,. That is equivalent to about 16 hectares of forest / woodland.  And Cver 370 species are supported in the territories of the Karen swidden farmers in northern Thailand.  

It is a little unusual to see a mainstream publication so specifically focused on a topic with such personal relevance, taking up prime retail shelf space on the high street. I was therefore particularly intrigued when I happened upon this volume whilst browsing in my local bookshop. The brief quotes from reviewers adorning an eye-catching green and gold cover gave away very little but with the brooding presence of an annual woodland conference looming in my diary, I made an investment decision that this could be a worthwhile and legitimate business expense, suitable for engaging my colleagues; so I bought eight copies. I conducted only a brief background investigation on the Author Tristan Gooley to assess his credentials but mindful not to form any premature opinions on the book. He is an author with some pedigree, having previously published works about the natural world; from The Natural Navigator to The Secret World of Weather and How to Connect with Nature. The short introduction to the author on the inside cover does not attempt to impress the reader with academic qualifications and in many respects, this sets the tone of his writing, as it consists mainly of a series of naturally acquired skills and observations based on his interest in his surroundings rather than scientific data. It makes it no less interesting to read to say that much of the book relates mainly to some fairly obvious environmental factors in relation to the growth of trees. Beyond the individual genetic make-up of a tree these are the critical determinants that will affect how each specimen will grow. The main influences being light and wind. The book then also spends time looking at other influences from topography, disease and preferred habitat for different tree species.  There is far too much detail to examine here but suffice to say that it is the way in which, what some might consider a slightly dry topic, is bought to life that makes this book so readable. Through a series of short anecdotes Tristan Gooley relates his own personal experiences as a means of bringing relevance to the text.  It is the very fact that there are relatively few principal variables involved with tree growth, that makes this study so appealing and accessible. We are taught to identify daily sights as we pass beneath the trees but do not always stop to contemplate their origins and ultimately how simple the explanation usually is.  [caption id="attachment_27419" align="alignleft" width="300"] Mature oak in winter[/caption] There is a good deal of interesting observation in this book and Tristan Gooley is right to say that it can change the way you look at both individual trees and the wider woodland landscape. Inevitably there will be a degree of repetition and at times the detail may seem a lot to engage with but it is certainly an interesting read for the many of us who spend a lot of time in the natural environment and also for those that may only occasionally contemplate the trees they encounter. Perhaps the most important point that I took from the book is to remind us that the countryside need not necessarily just be passed through in a hasty green blur on the way to somewhere else but that the greater reward is to be found in less hurried wanderings. By losing track of time for a while we give ourselves the opportunity to observe and appreciate a little more of what is happening around us.

Bee:wild [https://beewild.rewild.org] is a new science-led, global campaign, which aims to help and save pollinators - particularly bees.  The woodlands blog has reported on the decline in many insect populations in recent times - referring to the ‘insect apocalypse’, the ‘windscreen test’,  and the ‘splatometer’. The causes for insect loss are many but critically important are : Habitat loss and fragmentation The extensive use of pesticides, herbicides & fungicides. These may be coupled with other issues such as climate change, and pollution from fertilisers into rivers and streams.  However, in recent times, we may now need “to add to the mix” - Wars and conflict.  These can result in changing patterns of agriculture so that the range of crops grown is reduced, which means there are less foraging opportunities for pollinators. The ubiquity of plastics. Specifically microplastics and nano plastics.  Microplastics come in part from larger plastic pieces that degrade into smaller pieces, but also from microbeads.  Microbeads are very small pieces of polyethylene plastic that are added to health and beauty products, such as certain skin cleansers and toothpastes. Now microplastics are to be found everywhere from the deep oceans, to Arctic snow and Antarctic ice. They are also found in the hives of honey bees.  Quite what their effect is on bees or indeed many other organisms (including us) is not yet clear. Artificial light.  Much of our world is illlluminated 24/7.  Towns and cities rarely experience total darkness, even the countryside is lit up by the lighting on roads and motorways.  This artificial light is not without effect.  Areas ‘bathed’ in light may Deter nocturnal moths from visiting flowers, reducing pollination and egg laying. Make the night flying moths ‘easier targets’ for predators (such as bats). Affect the feeding habits of moth caterpillars. Air and water pollution.  Both air and water are increasingly filled with a ‘cocktail’ of chemicals, some derived from the extensive use of pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, some come from use of fertilisers).  Particulates released from car tyres and brake pads contribute to the ‘chemical smorgasbord’.  Whilst the effect of any given chemical may be sub-lethal, small, or non existent the combined effect of the mixture may be significant, even deadly.   Wild fires.  Add into this anthropogenic concoction mentioned above, the chemicals released from wild fires - such as those seen recently in Canada, Siberia, Australia and the United States.  These fires not only release a complex mixture of particulates and chemicals, they also destroy habitats for pollinators.  The sheer scale of these fires makes the recovery of ecosystems that much harder. Bee:wild [https://beewild.rewild.org] suggests a number of measures to help pollinators : A swifter move to electric cars to reduce levels of atmospheric pollution Production of crops with enhanced nectar and pollen production to benefit pollinators Creation of more flower-rich areas, for example, within solar farms Use of RNAi therapy to specifically target pests and not beneficial insects.  RNA interference is a technique that uses natural cellular processes to silence or reduce the expression of particular genes in a particular organism.  Thus, it might render a pest sterile. Introduction of measures to reduce the use of ‘our’ chemicals, used to enhance the growth of crop or animals. Such measures when coupled with the creation of urban rich flower gardens, rewilding and the protection of remaining areas of natural habitats will help pollinators, and insects in general.

Woodlands TV has just produced an interesting film about one of our native amphibians - the Great Crested Newt.  It is a species that has protected status through UK and European law.  It is an offence to kill, disturb or capture them, or their eggs.  Developers of building sites near ponds / breeding sites need to conduct surveys to see if newts are present in the area before work can start.  If there are newts present in an area, then appropriate mitigations must be put in place before work can start. The great crested newt, also known as the northern crested newt and the warty newt, is a species that is native to The UK.   It is also to be found parts of Europe and Western Siberia. Sadly, like many other invertebrates species, its numbers are in decline - falling in numbers from one million to 400000.   This dramatic decline is mainly due to loss of habitat.  Across the country, many ponds have been lost due to the advance of agriculture, particularly during the last century.  See the woodlands blog on Ghosts and Zombies. The newt is large, and females may be six inches or more in length.  The body is a deep brown in colour, though the underside (the belly) is yellow / orange with dark ‘blotches’.  In the breeding season, the males are particularly distinctive as they develop a crest on the back and tail. Interestingly, the newt spends most of the year on land, returning to water / breeding sites in the Spring.   In their aquatic phase, they will feed on insects, insect larvae, molluscs, tadpoles, even small newts.  On land, they will eat worms,  slugs and insects.  The newts may be eaten by birds (like herons), hedgehogs, badgers, foxes and grass snakes. The males offer a ritualised display to ‘court’ the females, and deposit a spermatophore, which is used to fertilise the female’s eggs.  A female may lay 200 to 400 eggs, often wrapped in pondweed (for protection from predators).  The eggs develop into larva and then transform into juveniles, known as efts. [embed]https://youtu.be/BSXyINFfPAs?si=UIrlCSXWlqVod1_s[/embed]