To many people, the dandelion is a pernicious weed.   First one makes its way into your garden, but then due to its reproductive capacity - there are dozens.  Each flower stalk may produce up to 200 seeds with their characteristic parachute for dispersal.  A plant may produce 10 or so flower stalks, so that it is a lot of seeds from a single plant.  Once the seeds  disperse and germinate, they produce a significant tap root which grows down into the soil seeking water and minerals.  The seedlings can survive in inhospitable places, like the cracks between street paving stones or on your drive. As the seeds are wind blown, they may travel considerable distances with the aid of their ‘parachutes'.  However, changes in agriculture, increasing use of herbicides etc have meant that countryside populations of dandelions have diminished.  This has affected the insects that feed upon the dandelions' nectar and pollen.  As the number of these insects falls, it affects the seed production of other plants that these insects visit. Interestingly, urban dandelions seem to benefit from the heat island effect in cities.  A city may be some 2oC warmer than its surrounding countryside, more so in the summer.   Dandelions seem to thrive in the heat, growing more rapidly than their 'rural cousins'.  Urban warmth also means that the plants can begin to flower soon after a milder and shorter winter, whereas other plants struggle to adapt to changing environmental signals.   The urban  dandelions provide a 'feast' for insects in early Spring when resources are limited.  Urban meadows can provide 90% of the nectar for pollinators, and 80% of the pollen. These provide sugars and proteins / amino acids for some 200 species of pollinators [ solitary bees, mining bees, bumble bees, hover flies and pollen beetles].  The gifts of the dandelions are helping many struggling insect populations. Interesting fact : Dandelions often reproduce by a sort of sub-sexual system (termed apomixis) that has resulted in some 200+ microspecies in the U.K.  These have been studied by Professor John Richards for some 40 years.  The species name Taraxacum officinale has a gg. (for aggregate) added to it - in recognition of all the variations of the plant that can be found.  Thanks to Angus for images. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taraxacum officinale  

A recent court case centred around the use of the death cap mushroom to poison people at a dinner party.  The use of this fungus to kill people is not as unusual as you might expect. It may have been involved in the death of the Roman emperor Claudius, and that of Pope Clement VII in 1534.  The death cap was also implicated in the death of the composer Johann Schobert.  Having collected wild mushrooms in Pré-Saint-Gervais, he was told that they were not edible, indeed poisonous.  Nevertheless, he used them to make mushroom soup. He and his wife, and one of his children died after consuming the soup. [caption id="attachment_33585" align="aligncenter" width="650"] A young Death Cap showing the somewhat hairy stem[/caption] The death cap looks inoffensive, with a pale yellow cap and white gills and can be mistaken for edible species if fungi.  It thought to be responsible for the vast  majority of fungal related deaths.  The active compound is a toxin called alpha-amanitin.  It is absorbed through the small intestine and as it circulates in the blood stream, it passes to the liver and then to the gall bladder. The toxin then enters the intestine again when the bile is released when the person next eats.  This cycle may repeat several times, with the toxin inflicting more and more damage. [caption id="attachment_33580" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Death Cap (Amanita phalloides)[/caption] Why the death cap makes this toxin is not clear.  It may deter insects and other invertebrates from eating the mushroom, or may help it establish mycorrhizal relationships by ‘interfering' with rival fungi.  Interestingly, the death cap was once assumed to be native to Europe, but it is now to be found America and other parts of the world.  It is thought to have travelled on the mycorrhizae of imported trees For further details of the toxin(s) produced by the death cap, and its reproduction - see the New Scientist 6th September 2025. Photos by Jasper, see his blogs on fungi month by month.  

This morning,  the Today programme (Radio 4) featured an interview with Kevin Martin ( Head of Tree Collections at Kew) and Chris Packham (environmental compaigner).  They were explaining the ongoing effects of this summer’s hot and dry weather.  Mr Martin said that the trees at Kew were “ tired, they have had a stressful summer”.  The result is that many trees are entering their dormant stage, moving materials from aerial regions to the roots - much earlier than usual.  The colour changes in leaves and leaf drop do not usually occur until well into October but this year such changes are already  proceeding apace.  Kew has been able to put some mitigations in place, for example, the watering of young trees which have yet to establish extensive roots systems. This is not true for trees across the UK, where young saplings in particular may have been affected by the dry weather and successive heat waves, [plus increased browsing by the extensive deer population]. Chris Packham spoke of “climate breakdown” and “environmental chaos”, noting that an oak tree near him was ‘festooned with acorns’, but they were only the size of peas.  Normally acorns would fall later in the year as food for wood pigeons,jays, squirrels and badgers.  Jays help ‘plant’ oak trees by distributing acorns.  He said that whilst local hawthorns were red with berries, which would normally be food for winter thrushes later in the year, the berries would now be dried up / shrivelled when the birds arrived to search for them.  Though lots of hedgerow fruit [e.g. sloes, rose hips, blackberries] is being produced, it is being produced at the wrong time.  He also commented on the scarcity of mole hills as moles are forced to burrow deeper in the soil in search of earthworms etc. As the seasons change, some plants and animals adapt. For example,  blackcaps from Northern Germany fly to the UK rather than Spain to overwinter.  During a relatively short period, their wing length has changed, actually shortened - a case of evolution in action.  However, many species are struggling.   The  wet summer of 2024 was particularly difficult for butterflies, as evidenced by the data collected by the Big Butterfly Count. Nature's timings are now ‘out of sync’, plants and animals are further impacted by extreme weather events, flooding, high winds and extreme temperatures. [caption id="attachment_24651" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Sloes on Blackthorn.[/caption] https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/news-and-media/media-centre/weather-and-climate-news/2025/double-record-breaker-spring-2025-is-warmest-and-sunniest-on-uk-record  

The base of a tree trunk is often covered with a ‘carpet’ of moss and lichens and the branches of the tree may bear ‘decorations’ of different mosses.  In shady areas, there may be a soft, spongey layer of moss underneath the tree.  Mosses are ‘simple’, non-vascular plants. They lack the sophisticated transporting tissues (phloem and xylem).  Nor do they have true roots, instead they have small structures called rhizoids, which help them attach to a surface. They ‘like’ moist places and are dependent on water for their reproduction.   The ancestors of mosses were probably some of the first plants to colonise land (previously there were only algae in the seas), possibly in the Ordovician Period. Mosses rarely grow to any great height, due to the absence of supporting mechanical tissue (lignified tissues, like xylem) but they can form extensive ‘mats’ in damp, shady places (as can liverworts).  Exposed to direct sunlight, they lose water rapidly.  Such mossy mats can, in some situations, help reduce soil erosion. The mats may also allow for the accumulation of humus and soil formation.  A particular example of the accumulation of mossy material is seen with the moss Sphagnum. Sphagnum grows in acidic, marshy conditions, often forming a bog. Low fertility and a cool climate result in slow growth of the Sphagnum (and other plants). The subsequent decay of dead plant material is even slower (due low oxygen levels). Hence, peat forms and accumulates.  Large areas of land can be covered to a depth of several metres with peat.  Bogs are a very effective means of locking up carbon for hundreds, if not thousands of years.   Sadly, many wetlands have been drained and allowed to dry out, then the peat cut from them as a form of fuel.  When peat areas are drained (channels are cut through the peat), they degrade and dry out. They are then at risk of  catching fire as has been seem in recent times:for example, the burning of  Slieve Beagh in Ireland and Langdale Moor in Yorkshire. The Interesting fact : Sphagnum has an interesting property in that can hold water  many times its own weight.  Because of this absorbency, Sphagnum was used as a wound dressing in WW1. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/150780/irelands-cutaway-peatlands https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cvg9n0j07epo .

Not all trees thrive in wet ground, but some species have adapted remarkably well to life with their roots submerged or in saturated soil. Among the best known are alder (Alnus), willow (Salix), and bald cypress (Taxodium distichum). Each plays a key role in stabilizing waterways, reproducing in wet conditions, and providing ecological benefits that extend to both humans and wildlife. Bank Stabilization Waterways are naturally dynamic systems, with banks that can shift and erode over time. Trees such as alder and willow are crucial in holding these banks together. Alders develop dense root systems that grip soil tightly, reducing erosion along rivers and streams. Similarly, willows have long, fibrous roots that spread widely and bind soil particles, acting almost like a living net. Bald cypress trees are less common along fast-moving rivers but dominate in swamps and floodplains. Their root systems, which include distinctive “knees” that protrude above water, help anchor them in soft, shifting sediments. In each case, the presence of these trees prevents soil loss and maintains more stable aquatic habitats. [embed]https://youtube.com/shorts/Tx6ra0WbrQ4?feature=share[/embed] Reproduction Through Water These species have also adapted to use water as a mechanism for reproduction. Willows are particularly effective at vegetative reproduction: broken branches can float downstream, take root in wet ground, and grow into new trees. Alders disperse lightweight seeds that are carried by water, enabling them to colonize new wet areas quickly. Bald cypress trees produce woody cones that release seeds into standing water, where they can establish when conditions are right. These strategies ensure that populations remain resilient in environments that frequently flood or shift. [embed]https://youtube.com/shorts/Hxf88-V27EY?si=JCGZWVBu7D7G1U0i[/embed] Benefits of Water-Resistant Trees Water-tolerant trees provide numerous benefits to ecosystems and people. By stabilizing soil, they reduce sediment entering rivers, which improves water quality. They also mitigate flood impacts: dense stands of willow or cypress can slow water flow, reducing the severity of downstream flooding. Their shade lowers water temperature, which benefits aquatic species such as trout and amphibians. In addition, these trees contribute to biodiversity by offering habitat and food for insects, birds, and mammals. [embed]https://youtube.com/shorts/KtqFq1FdOjA?feature=share[/embed] For human communities, the presence of water-resistant trees translates into natural flood control, cleaner waterways, and protection of infrastructure built near rivers and wetlands. In a time of increasing climate variability, species that withstand flooding are especially valuable as buffers against extreme weather events. Conclusion Alder, willow, and bald cypress are excellent examples of trees that thrive with their “toes in the water.” They stabilize banks, reproduce effectively in wet habitats, and deliver ecological services that benefit both nature and people. Preserving and planting these species where appropriate is an important step in maintaining resilient waterways and healthy ecosystems.

A woodland bank can refer to various structures but usually it refers to a raised earth structure found in a woodland or on the edge of a woodland.  Such banks are usually man-made, though banks can be natural formations. Sometimes, besides the bank there is a ditch, formed where the soil for the bank was excavated.  Banks may date back hundreds of years, possibly even to mediaeval times.  They are found in the U.K and Europe.   Such banks were created to Contain deer or livestock or Mark the boundary of an area of land Woodland banks may support ancient woodland species, such as dog’s mercury, bluebells and wood anemone.  Indeed, they can be biodiversity hotspots, or corridors that help the spread of species.  In some parts of the country, there are ‘hedgebanks’,  these are raised banks which support trees and shrubs on their top surfaces.  Over the years, these may have become field boundaries. Some of the UK’s best known woodlands contain banks, for example, Epping Forest, where the banks delineate old coppicing and former deer / livestock enclosures.  The area was managed by the Royal Foresters.  Wytham Wood is probably the most intensively studied wood in the country as it is owned by the university of Oxford and used for long term ecological research.  It has several wood banks (that support indicator species) with ditches that date back to mediaeval times.  Banks and ditches are also found in Sherwood Forest, which were used to ‘control’ deer in the royal hunting ground. [caption id="attachment_42471" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Woodland ban with mature trees.[/caption] If you wish to investigate woodland banks further, there some digital resources that might be useful - for example The Magic map at DEFRA.   This can many different different features of the landscape e.g. historic boundaries, designated ancient woodland, land use etc. You zoom into your area of interest, and then make use of different layers superimposed on the detailed map of the U.K.  https://magic.defra.gov.uk/home.htm The Ancient Tree Inventory, organised by the woodland trust.  Again, this is an interactive map of ancient and veteran trees.  Woodland banks and ancient trees often ‘coincide’ as trees often marked boundaries / divisions.    https://ati.woodlandtrust.org.uk Thanks to Stuart for images. Stuart is woodlands.co.uk manager for Devon. He holds a degree in Environmental Protection and is passionate about woodlands. He enjoys the hands-on approach that working with Woodlands.co.uk affords him, clearing tracks, putting up gates and fences and getting people started with their woodland. Stuart teaches conservation to NVQ level and is very involved in practical conservation work, carrying out bat surveys, dormouse surveys and building artificial badger sets.  

Sitka Spruce is a large conifer, it can grow to a height of 100 metres or circa three hundred feet.   Its trunk can be 5 metres (16 feet) in diameter.  Its size is comparable to some of the Redwoods.   It is native to the west coast of North America.  Its name Sitka comes from an Alaskan community where it is widespread, though it can be found all along the west coast of Canada and the United States.   Loggimg has reduced much of the native spruce forest, particularly of the larger trees.   The spruce is a long lived tree, some estimated to have an age of 500 years or more.  Size in itself is not necessarily an indication of age as a tree can grow rapidly in the right conditions, adding up to a cubic metre of wood in a year.  The bark of the tree is ‘scaly’ and tends to flake off.  The deeper, inner bark has a reddish brown colour.  The leaves are needle like and stiff, somewhat flattened in cross section with a blue green colour.  The root system is relatively shallow, with long lateral roots, which means it can be susceptible to ‘wind throw’. Sitka ‘prefers’ soil high in calcium and magnesium (magnesium is essential for chlorophyll formation).  Its wind dispersed seeds readily colonise areas cleared by fire or exposed by land slip, acting as a pioneer species but in coastal areas it is a dominant, climax species. Because of its rapid growth rate and the nature of its wood, it is valued as a source of timber and used in paper production.  Specialist uses include the making of musical instruments (pianos, harps) because of its resonant nature.  It was introduced to the UK in the nineteenth century by David Douglas - the botanist after whom the Douglas Fir is named.   Sitka Spruce now accounts for some 25% of forest / plantation cover in the UK.  As with any monoculture, the biodiversity in plantations is limited and there is a move to change this.  Diversification helps make such forests more resilient to new pests and pathogens, and also climate change. Some 500+ species use Sitka trees as a space for living or for feeding, when viewed across the UK.   Most of these species are not specialists unique to Sitka and are found on a wide range of other trees.  Research is underway to use broad leaved trees to help diversify Sitka forests.   The introduction of such trees might improve litter decomposition and nutrient cycling.   A number of trees are possible candidates e,g. oak, birch, beech, spruce and pine.  They would help support existing species visiting Sitka and add others.  However,  individual trees of these tree species will not grow long-term in stands of Sitka. However, it might be possible to achieve the benefits of diversification by using small blocks of single species within specific management areas.  More research is needed to determine the optimal size and spatial arrangement of such blocks. [caption id="attachment_42460" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Sitka spruce[/caption] Further reading : https://academic.oup.com/forestry/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/forestry/cpaf040/8203130?redirectedFrom=fulltext t

When thinking of conifers, one might feel a bit ‘schizophrenic’.  Perhaps picturing a Leylandii encroaching on your garden, whilst also remembering your Christmas tree.  Maybe the typical image of conifers is that of a tree with dark green foliage all year round.  However, this would be something of a disservice to the Conifer family - the Pinophyta, which contains an amazing variety of trees, many of which are at risk of extinction.  This group includes cedars, firs, cypresses, junipers, larches, pines, hemlocks, redwoods, spruces, and yews. [caption id="attachment_32107" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Leaves on the branchlets of Dawn Redwood[/caption] Conifers are important because They dominate vast areas of land, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere,  forming the boreal forests or taiga. Softwood from conifers accounts for approximately 45% of global timber production. Pine, spruce and larch are often grown specifically for softwood production. The wood is also used in the paper production[.and, to a lesser extent, in making plastic from chemically treated wood pulp].  Some species produce edible seeds , such as pine nuts provide foods such as pine nuts for humans and wildlife and juniper berries, which are used to flavour gin.  The Monkey Puzzle tree, (also known as the Pehuen Pine, native to Chile and Argentina) produces seeds known as piñones; traditionally harvested by indigenous communities.  [caption id="attachment_27592" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Monkey puzzle tree[/caption] To see the diversity of the Conifer family one could visit the Bedgebury Pinetum.  This is home to one of the world’s most important conifer collections.  Bedgebury was established in 1925 by Kew Gardens and the Forestry Commission.  The curator at Kew had observed that the conifers there were ‘being choked by London Smogs’.  The site at Bedgebury, situated on the Southern Kentish weald, was ideal.  It offered an escape from the pollution of London and it had wet and free draining areas, plus varied soils so it a range of conifer could be grown. The land already had some conifers that had been planted by Viscount Beresford - an evergreen enthusiast.  In 1925, some 315 trees were planted.  This year, to celebrate reaching a century, some 89 of the original trees are marked with special yellow labels.  For  its first twenty years, the pinetum was managed by William Dallimore. His diaries record in some detail the trees he planted, and the challenges faced in establishing the pinetumIf you visit, then you might walk through through Dallimore Valley, and view his legacy. Bedgebury soon became a centre for the scientific interest in conifers, their conservation, and landscape planning.  The current curator is Dan Luscombe. Apart from seeing a range of conifers, the pinetum offers a variety of activities, e.g. family cycling, mountain biking and walking, There is also the play trail or you can explore the canopy on a Go Ape tree-top adventure or challenge.  It is rumoured that the Gruffalow lurks within the grounds of the  Pinetum. There is also a cafe, serving a range of drinks, plus  breakfast and lunch options. The pinetum is open from from 8 AM to 8 PM (March 2025 to 26 October 2025), and there are charges for car parking.