What do nutmeg, allspice, vanilla, cinnamon, anise, cloves, ginger, and cardamom generally have in common ? Broadly speaking, they are spices that we associate with Christmas. They are much used in cakes, christmas puddings, mince pies, mulled wine, and punch. They add nuance and flavour to eating and drinking at this time of year.  Whilst spices are parts of plants, ‘spices’ is not a strict botanical term, more a culinary one. Spices come from a variety of plant sources, ranging from woody shrubs and trees, to the roots, flowers, seeds and fruits of herbaceous plants.   Spices are generally dried plant products, whereas other flavourings notably herbs are used in their fresh state. Spices and herbs offer sensations such as pungency, hotness, freshness as well as feelings of temperature or even pain (think of a very hot chilli pepper or curry).  Apart from the fact that people across the world enjoy the taste of various spices, various hypotheses have been put forward to explain the use of spices (for example, the Darwinian gastronomy hypothesis). Nowadays, spices are regarded as familiar or commonplace but in the past they were exotic and expensive (as was tea, which was kept under lock and key away from the servants).  Spices ‘unlocked’ fortunes for those who ‘discovered’ and transported them from far flung places (such as the Dutch East Indies, the source of nutmeg, cinnamon and black peppercorns). The original source of Nutmeg was the Banda Islands of Indonesia (sugar cane also originated in this area).  The Portuguese and the Dutch fought for control of the islands.  The Dutch East India Company was established in the early 1600’s and operated from Jayakarta for best the best part of 200 years.  Britain briefly occupied the islands and nutmeg trees were sent to Singapore, Malaysia and Sri Lanka, and then on to Zanzibar, Grenada and the Indian state of Kerala. As the tree’s (Myristica fragrans) homeland is tropical, it cannot tolerate frost but it is now widely grown throughout Indonesia, India and Guatemala.  Between them, these countries produce some 85% of the nutmeg harvest each year.  Nutmeg trees are dioecious, that is, there are separate male and female trees.  Young trees begin to produce fruit when they are a few years old but it not possible to determine which trees are male and which are female until then.  Obviously only female trees will produce nutmegs.  Peak production of the fruit occurs when the trees are about twenty years old and productivity falls after some 60 years. The fruit is termed [botanically] a drupe.  That is a fruit in which an outer fleshy part (the skin and flesh) surrounds a single shell (the pit, stone) with a seed (or kernel) inside.  The fleshy covering of the nutmeg is sweet and in Indonesian culture may be used to make a jam, juice or dessert.  Beneath the flesh / pulp is a crimson tissue. This is peeled away, dried and grated to form the spice - MACE.   The seed is dried in the sun, the flesh extracted and ground to make the commercial form of NUTMEG, though it can be grated.  Whilst mace and nutmeg are similar in flavour, mace is sometimes described as having a more subtle taste and a bright orange colour.  Nutmeg has a warm, slightly sweet taste; it can be used to flavour baked goods, puddings, potatoes, meats, sauces,, and such drinks such as eggnog (though cinnamon may be used as an alternative ingredient), mulled wine and chai tea. Interestingly, too much nutmeg can have neurological  effects (convulsions, delirium, headaches).  Whilst the chemicals in nutmeg (and other spices) add flavour to our foods and drink, they are actually part of the plant’s defence mechanisms.  They deter insects and other animals from eating / attacking the plant, and may have anti-microbial properties.  Nutmeg contains a compound called myristicin - it protects the seed against attack.  However, in the body this can be converted into the chemical MMDA, an amphetamine derivative,   The effect(s) of consuming large amounts of nutmeg can take some hours to develop and may persist for some time. The levels recommended for use in cooking etc are generally quite safe. Most recipes use between 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoon of nutmeg, and these recipes are then often split into several portions, so the actual exposure to nutmeg (and myristicin) is small. Incidentally, nutmeg was once thought of as a treatment for the plague! Nutmeg is one of the ingredients of mixed spice.  This is a blend of different sweet spices. It often contains cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice; sometimes cloves, ginger, coriander (seeds) and caraway may be added.  The term "mixed spice" has referred to this blend of spices in cookbooks dating back to the nineteenth century and possibly much earlier. Allspice is the dried fruit of the plant Pimenta dioica, an evergreen tree / shrub. Early attempts to grow the tree from seed failed until it was found that the seeds needed to pass through the gut of birds - this was the ‘trigger’ for successful germination.  The fruits are traditionally dried in the sun, they then resemble peppercorns.  At one time, the plant was thought to grow only in Jamaica and it is sometimes referred to as the Jamaica Pepper. Now, it is grown in many warm parts of the world.   Whilst allspice is a valued ingredient in Jamaican cooking, e.g. jerk seasoning, it is also used in many other cuisines : middle eastern, Polish, Finnish and Swedish.  It is used to flavour stews, soups and meat dishes, but can also be used in various sweet dishes.  Allspice is also an ingredient in mixed spice (mentioned above) often used in baking, and in the making of Christmas pudding or a Christmas cake. [caption id="attachment_40700" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Cinnamon[/caption] Historically speaking, another valued spice was cinnamon.  It was a suitable gift at the Temple of Apollo (at Miletus).  The source of cinnamon was a secret to traders in the Mediterranean world for centuries,  they controlled the spice trade in order to protect their profits / monopoly.  Cinnamon comes from Cinnamonum trees that belong to the Laurel family.  There are many species (see here for a list) but Cinnamomum verum known as "Ceylon cinnamon" is considered to be "true cinnamon”. However, most commercially available cinnamon comes from :- C. burmanni  - Indonesian cinnamon or Padang cassia),  C. cassia  - Chinese cinnamon or Chinese cassia),  C. loureiroi  -Saigon cinnamon or Vietnamese cassia), and C. citriodorum - Malabar cinnamon The trees are coppiced so that multiple stems are produced and it is from the bark of these stems that the strips of cinnamon are produced.   [caption id="attachment_40703" align="alignleft" width="300"] cinnamon quills / sticks[/caption] Cinnamon has a strong, spicy flavour.  The properties of cinnamon come principally from two chemicals - cinnamaldehyde and eugenol. The cinnamaldehyde is largely responsible for the flavour and aroma of cinnamon.    It is known to stimulate particular receptors in the nerve endings in the mouth - the TRP receptors.   The eugenol has a pleasant, spicy, clove-like scent.  Cinnamon is used in the baking of cinnamon rolls and buns, as it handles baking conditions well.  It is commonly used in Sweden, and such is the ‘importance’ of their cinnamon buns - kanelbullar that the Swedes have an official Cinnamon Bun Day - on October 4th!   Cinnamon is also widely used in Portuguese, Turkish and Persian Cuisine. Cinnamon is also used in fragrant candles.  Thousands of years ago, cinnamon (and pine resin) was used in Egypt as a ‘perfume’ / embalming material in the preparation of dead bodies for mummification.  In recent times, cinnamon-rich materials have been investigated for medical uses, particularly in relation to type 2 diabetes and the control of blood sugar levels. Thanks to pixabay for images of nutmeg .

Across the world there may be three trillion trees. A mature tree may have 200,000 leaves, so there are a lot of leaves in the world - not counting those on herbaceous plants, grasses and shrubs.  The broad structure of a leaf is outlined here in woodlands.co.uk Tree ID. The leaf is the site of photosynthesis, providing food for the tree, and oxygen for us.  As the leaf is rich in nutrients, it is a source of nutrition for many organisms - other than the tree.  Oak trees are said to support over 2000 species, ranging from mammals, birds, beetles, spiders, fungi - through leaf-based food chains.  Leaves also support many micro-organisms through the detrital food chain (the decomposition of leaves in the litter layer and the soil). We do not eat many tree leaves, though some do make their way into our diet.  For example, the evergreen shrub Camellia sinensis is widely grown in many parts of the world for the production of tea.  The young leaves can be picked in spring and dried to make tea.  Leaves of other plants are used in various herbal infusions or for flavouring such as bay, sage, oregano, thyme etc. The fact that leaves are attractive to so many herbivores means that trees (and other plants) take measures to protect themselves. Some measures are physical - such as spines, thorns, prickles etc.   But when is a thorn a thorn, rather than a spine or a prickle?  These terms are used casually and interchangeably.  Botanically speaking, they are all ‘spinose structures’ that is hard, rigid extensions or modifications of leaves, roots, or stems - all of which have sharp, stiff ends and all have the same role - to deter animals from eating the plant that bears them.  Plants that bear sharp structures that deter herbivory are termed spinescent.  There are differences between these various ‘structures’. thorns are derived from shoots (they may be branched or not, may or may not have leaves). The thorns of Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) can bear leaves. spines are derived from leaves (they may be formed from all of the leaf or just part of it and like thorns they have vascular tissue*) prickles are derived from the epidermis (the outer layer of cells of a stem, root or a leaf).   Prickles may be found almost anywhere on a plant and they do not have vascular tissue inside.  Wild lemon and lime trees (Genus: Citrus) have spines, which protect young plants and indeed the fruits. The defences on roses are often described as thorns, but they are prickles, as they do not have vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) inside them. Sometimes, the leaf epidermis forms smaller, ‘simpler’ physical barriers called trichomes.  These are outgrowths of epidermal tissue but generally consist of only a few cells which form a defence against small insects.  Equally, a thick,  waxy cuticle on a leaf may be something of a deterrent to smaller insects. Leaves sometimes form ‘teeth’ on the leaf margins and leaf apices.  A classic example of this is seen in Holly.  Holly leaves that develop at ground level are wavy, with large triangular ‘teeth’, bearing spines.   As the tree grows and holly can reach up to 80 feet,  the leaves become less spiny. The spines offer protection against grazing animals at the lower levels but are no longer needed when the trees reach a certain height. While physical defences such as spines, prickles and trichomes can deter various herbivores,  chemical defences may also be deployed.  Chemical defences can take different ‘forms’, such as  [caption id="attachment_28705" align="alignright" width="300"] Oozing latex - Euphorbia[/caption] tannins and phenolics. These create an bitter taste, they are complex polyphenols built from several phenolic molecules. Tannins are common in leaf tissues - particularly in the cells on the top surface of a leaf.  Scale leaves of buds are often particularly rich in tannins, reducing  the palatability or "tastiness" of the tissue thereby offering protection from herbivores.  Alkaloids are again usually bitter tasting compounds -, many of them derived from amino acids. Glycosides, as the name suggests, contain a sugar that is joined to another chemical, such as cyanide (as seen in bitter almonds (amygdalin). Another possibility is that leaves may emit chemicals (aka VOC’ volatile organic compounds, scents, aromas) that deter insect visitors, or if a leaf is under attack by a insect pest then a leaf may release a VOC to ‘warn’ nearby plants of the attack so that they produce chemicals that make the leaves distasteful. How long a leaf lives is incredibly variable, it may be eaten within days of its formation, it may last till autumn or it may last for years.  Many trees of temperate climes are deciduous, that is they shed their leaves come the shorter days of autumn.  The advantage of this is that the tree offers less resistance to the winds of winter, so is less likely to suffer physical damage (also true of snowfall).  The tree enters a state of dormancy until spring.  If in spring the tree produces flowers before the leaves (like Blackthorn) this  can facilitate wind dispersal of the pollen.  However, losing leaves each year means that their nutrients are either lost or have to be moved out and stored somewhere else.  Having longer lasting leaves means that nutrients are retained, which is a distinct advantage in a nutrient poor, harsh environment.  The longest lived leaves are found in a plant of the Namib Desert : Welwitschia.  This plant has two leaves throughout its life of some two thousand years.  The leaves may reach a length of 4 metres, the ends die or get worn away but the base generates new tissue.   Welwitschia is a type of Gymnosperm. Image (with thanks) by Nhelia from Pixabay  

According to some interpretations of the bible, the Magi or ‘wise men’ travelled from afar bearing gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh to present to the infant Jesus. The meaning and significance of these gifts has been debated over the years.  One things is clear - all were valuable materials as might have been presented to a king or deity.  Together with spices, frankincense and myrrh moved through ancient trade routes for thousands of years. Gold is a relatively rare element and as such is a precious metal that has been used for jewellery and coinage throughout recorded history.  It is a noble metal, that is it is relatively unreactive, resisting attack by most acids - with the exception of aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids. But what of frankincense and myrrh?   Their origins are not geological as both are plant products.  They come from a group of plants known as the Torchwood family or the Burseraceae.  These are trees or shrubs that have prominent resin ducts / canals.  The resin ducts are tubes, surrounded by cells which produce and secrete a resin into the canals / ducts.  The resin is viscous, ’antiseptic’ and aromatic (often smelling of almonds) and helps to prevents microbial attack (and may deter wood boring insects). Frankincense comes from trees of the genus Boswellia.  Nearly all species of this genus have a bark that produces an aromatic sap but it is B. sacra, (also known as the olibanum tree) that is the main source of frankincense (from its papery, peeling bark).  It is found in Somalia, Yemen and Oman, often growing in relatively inhospitable places.  To obtain the resin, the bark of the tree is cut and resin seeps out and is collected, rather like the tapping of a rubber tree.  The trees do not produce resin until they have reached a certain maturity and over-exploitation of the trees can lead to their death.  The seeds from heavily tapped trees are less likely to germinate than those from trees that have not been ‘drained’ of resin.  All Boswellia species are threatened by habitat loss, over-exploitation, and damage by long horn beetles. What is Frankincense used for?  The word derives from the Old French ‘franc encens’ meaning high quality incense.  Many tonnes of frankincense are traded each year and are used in religious ceremonies, and in the making of perfumes and natural medicines.  In ancient times, the Egyptians used it in the process of mummification, it was added to the body cavities together with natron (a mixture of sodium salts).  The resin has also been used in traditional Chinese medicine for its antibacterial properties and ‘blood moving’ properties. Like Frankincense, myrrh is a resin harvested by wounding the bark of a tree. The bark is a silvery grey, and the twigs are quite spiny (see image).  The resin that exudes is ‘waxy’ and quickly congeals becoming hard and glossy, darkening as it ages. The tree in question is Commiphora myrrha.  It is found in north east Africa - Somalia, Yemen, Eritrea and parts of Saudi Arabia.   The related Commiphora gileadensis, native to Israel, Palestine and Jordan, is also accepted as an alternate source of myrrh.  Myrrh has been used as an antiseptic in mouthwashes, and as a constituent in salve / ointment for skin abrasions, bruises and sprains.  It  has also been used in perfumes and  as a special flavouring for wine.  Like frankincense, it was used in making incense❋ and in the preparation of bodies for mummification / embalming.  In Exodus [30:22-24], God said to Moses to take the best spices and liquid myrrh to make a holy anointing oil.  Anointing oil is still used in certain ceremonies / rituals of both Eastern Orthodox and Western Churches.  In some cultures, it can be used to ‘fumigate’ or refresh a house, giving a warm, earthy and balsamic odour.  It is also said that myrrh is a powerful detoxifier, can lower cholesterol and stabilise blood sugar levels.  Both frankincense and myrrh were extensively traded in ancient and more recent historic times, along with various spices (such as cinnamon, ginger and nutmeg) across the Mediterranean and Arabian peninsula, through to India.  Interestingly, in Ancient Rome, myrrh was priced at five times the cost of frankincense. ❋ Incense can be made from various aromatic plant materials that produce a scent. The actual ingredients used vary by region / area. Apart from frankincense and myrrh, incense may contain cinnamon musk patchouli (from a plant of the mint family) sandalwood. Many thanks to Pixabay for images of frankincense and myrrh  (Leo_65, xbqs42  et al))   .

At this time of year, certain flavourings come to the fore.  Cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon are a bit more prominent than at other times of year.  Though widely used in many cultures and cuisines, they are perhaps more associated with the winter months and Christmas.  Nutmeg comes from a dark leaved, evergreen tree Myristica fragrans.   The tree is indigenous to the Maluku Islands of Indonesia (specifically the Banda Islands), but is now widely grown in Indonesia, Malaysia, Grenada in the Caribbean and Kerala in India. The tree is dioecious, that is to say, there are male and female trees.  Male trees are unproductive in terms of nutmeg harvest, so grafting of cuttings from female trees is often used to produce new plants.  The trees take some twenty years to reach ‘peak production’. The fruit of the tree yields the Nutmeg, and the covering of the seed (the aril) is the source of Mace.  The fruits are gathered up and dried in the sun (for some 6 to 8 weeks).  As the structure dries,  the husk (seed coat) and seed separate.  The seed coat or shell is then broken and the seed picked out; it is separated from the reddish aril, which is the source of mace.  The grinding of the seed yields nutmeg.  Nutmeg has a distinctive, somewhat pungent fragrance and contributes a warm, slightly sweet taste to food.  It is used to flavour mulled wine, punches and cider, added to pumpkin pie and can be used to ‘spice up’ baking, from gingerbread to muffins or chocolate and fruit cakes. Nutmeg oil, which can be produced by a process of steam distillation, is rich in terpenes (like pinene and limonene).  It, too, can be used as a food flavouring or in products like toothpaste !  Mace, from the covering of the seed, has a more delicate flavour (than nutmeg) and may give a saffron-like colour to dishes - which may range from meat recipes to Christmas pudding. Cinnamon is used extensively in many cuisines and even in scented candles.  It is one of the most commonly used spices in Sweden.  Indeed, such is the ‘importance’ of their cinnamon buns - kanelbullar - that the Swedes now have an official Cinnamon Bun Day - on October 4th!  [caption id="attachment_39202" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Cinnamon 'buns'[/caption] Together with other spices such as turmeric, saffron, sumac, and cardamom, cinnamon is widely used in Portuguese, Turkish and Persian Cooking.  The properties of cinnamon come from the chemicals - cinnamaldehyde and eugenol. The cinnamaldehyde is largely responsible for the flavour and aroma of cinnamon,   whilst the eugenol has a pleasant, spicy, clove-like scent.  Cinnamon comes from the inner bark of trees of the genus Cinnamomum,  the trees belong the Laurel family.  They are four main species associated with cinnamon production “ Cinnamomum verum  Cinnamomum burmannii Cinnamomum cassia  Cinnamomum loureiroi C. verum has its origins in Sri Lanka and is sometimes referred to as ‘true cinnamon’, with the material derived from other sources sometimes referred to as “cassia’.  The material derived from the different Cinnamomum species has different physical properties.  Ceylon cinnamon gives a thin inner bark of a light brown colour, with a crumbly texture.  It has a subtle and aromatic flavour. , whereas, Cassia has a stronger, spicy flavour (and is much used in baking).   Most of the world’s production of cinnamon cassia now comes from Indonesia and China.  Cinnamon and cassia are often used interchangeably.  The trees are evergreen, with oval shaped leaves and a thick bark.  When a tree is two years old, it is coppiced.  That is, it is cut back to ground level so that in the following year a number of shoots are produced, which are allowed to grow on for future harvesting.  When cut, the stems have the outer bark is scraped off so that the inner bark can be removed.  It is this material that is rich in the spice.  As it dries, it curls up into rolls or ‘quills’.  Like many spices and metals, cinnamon was extensively traded across the ancient world.  It was utilized as a perfume in rubbing oils and was also used as a fragrance in the mummification / preservation of dead bodies in ancient Egypt.  Nero was said to have burned enormous quantities of the spice / incense at the funeral of his wife (Poppaea).  In recent times, cinnamon rich materials have been investigated for medical uses, specially in relation to type 2 diabetes and blood sugar control. Thanks to Pixabay for images (Emmie_Norfolk and aga2rk)

The first stage to lino printing is to find inspiration. Christmas is a great time to try this craft as it can be used in Christmas cards or for printing your own wrapping paper. It's important to bear in mind that shapes are paramount with lino cutting and printing, so it's a good idea to look for distinctive shapes with clear edges. You can add in shading or marks after printing if you choose.    Winter is a great time to look for inspiration. I like to look in the woods. While walking, I look for leaf shapes or dried seed heads are my favourite. You can also draw from imagination if you prefer. Leaves like holly are fairly easy to draw with their clear defined points.    When I've collected some specimens I need to transfer them to paper so I can trace the shapes on to the lino. I'm not the best artist so after a few disappointing sketches I came up with another plan. I photocopied the leaves and seedheads by placing them on the glass of the copier and covering them with a sheet of white paper.   Bingo! They came out really well.   [caption id="attachment_39235" align="alignright" width="300"] Seed head[/caption]                   The hemlock seed heads looked a little cluttered which is tricky to create on the lino so I stripped the seeds and tried again. Important to remember some seeds, leaves etc are toxic so you need to be sensible handing them. [caption id="attachment_39246" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Tracing the leaves[/caption] Once I have the copied shapes or drawn the images I trace them onto tracing paper then flip the tracing paper and rub the back to transfer the image on to the lino. If it's not completely clear you can re draw it or draw directly on to the lino. When you have an image that you're happy with it's time to cut.   So, what will you need ? [caption id="attachment_39236" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Cutter with various nibs, plus a roller.[/caption] Lino.  This comes in different levels of density and lots of different sizes. You can purchase a selection to find out which you prefer. I buy from Etsy but there are many other available sources. Tools.  Cutting tools are small, shaped blades that fit into a handle. It takes some trial and error to find out what works for a design so good to have a spare square of lino for making practice cuts. [caption id="attachment_39238" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Cutting a flower shape[/caption] I cut my design or outline into the lino square - remember - what ever you remove will be white on the final print - and cut any detail I want with different blades. This may be trial and error and you can always come back and cut more but, obviously, cannot fill back in. Ink roller.  A small plastic or rubber coated roller, like a mini paint roller. This is the fun bit. Choose your ink colour and put a little ink on a smooth surface. I have an ink tray but you could use an old tile or similar. Roll the roller in the ink then over the design making sure it's well covered them press the lino piece onto paper or card or the other way around - pressing the paper on to the lino and run your fingers over the back to transfer the ink.  [caption id="attachment_39239" align="aligncenter" width="673"] Place ink in the tray and spread[/caption] [caption id="attachment_39240" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Evenly spread the ink on the roller and roll over the shape on the Lino[/caption] Inks   These come in every colour and shade and are water based so you can get proper messy and it all washes off. [caption id="attachment_39237" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Rolling tray and different colours of ink[/caption] It's entirely possible your creation doesn't look exactly how you wanted it to first time. It's a process where you will tailor how you draw, cut and print to get to what you want to achieve.   If you want you can add to a print with another ink colour and fill in different shape with another link cut or overlap a design or colour. There is lots of inspiration on the internet.  Designs can be simple or complicated depending on who is creating.   My daughter enjoyed making a toadstool print which was a simple shape and cut and now plans to make some Christmas cards. [caption id="attachment_39241" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Place lino onto card to print image and allow to dry.[/caption]

In recent times, we have heard much about various initiatives to plant more trees, such as The Queen’s Green Canopy tree planting project to mark the platinum jubilee. Tree planting is part of the government’s plan to mitigate certain aspects of climate change as the trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is one of the principal greenhouse gases.  Once absorbed and used in photosynthesis, much of this carbon is then locked away for many years in the form of complex compounds, such as cellulose and lignin. The peak of carbon dioxide uptake by UK woodlands and forests was estimated to be just under 20 million tonnes in 2009.  However, since that time the amount has actually declined.  Many of the conifer plantations that were planted back in the 1970’s and 1980’s have now been felled / harvested, so they no longer contribute to the uptake of carbon dioxide.  It is important that these clear felled areas are replanted and tree cover restored; indeed, in places increased.  Planting rates have risen in Scotland but the performance by the rest of the UK is somewhat limited.  Even with new planting, it takes time for such new forests / woodlands to reach the CO2 absorption levels seen in the 2000’s. Continuous cover forestry (CCF) is a different approach to woodland forest management; it seeks to avoid clear felling and  promotes a mosaic of trees by age and species. There are a number of factors that influence new planting, such as the availability of land.  Using high grade agricultural land for tree planting would affect targets for increased agricultural productivity and domestic food supply.  Also, with climate change and the increasing number of extreme weather events (storms, flooding, drought etc) greater thought needs to be given to risks such as forest fires.  Recent months have demonstrated the ferocity of forest fires in France, California and Portugal.  We cannot assume that the UK will be exempt from such events.  Similarly, we have witnessed powerful storms (such as Storm Arwen) which felled many thousands of trees (and impacted on public services such as electricity and train travel).  The warming climate is also associated with ‘new’ diseases and parasites in our woodlands and forests. New planting needs resilience ‘built in’ to the plan. The Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee in its recent report (2021/2) has made a number of important comments in relation to tree planting in the UK, notably : It noted that the Forestry Commission had said that nurseries in the UK will struggle to expand production to deliver the number of young trees required for the Government to achieve its planting ambitions. There is a lack of a sufficiently skilled and large workforce to achieve England’s tree planting ambitions. To meet the Government’s tree planting goals, the UK will need to import seeds and young trees (until domestic capacity increases); and this carries the risk of the introduction of pests and diseases.  

In 1820, John Keats famous poem “To Autumn’ was published.  Its opening line often serves to describe autumn as ‘The season of mists and mellow fruitfulness’.  Indeed, Autumn has arrived here.  Woodlands have been transformed into a 'tableau' of red, yellows, and oranges as the leaves are shed and the woodland floor has become a veritable fungal jungle, (as Jasper has described).  Hawthorn and other bushes are laden with berries, conkers and acorns are generously strewn across woodland floors, squirrels are eating hazelnuts (and hiding them as a winter food store).  But this cornucopia of fruits and seeds may be in response to the long, hot and very dry summer we have experienced.  Trees and shrubs have been stressed by the heat and drought. Some have responded by mobilising their reserves / efforts into producing more fruits and seeds, to ensure that they pass on their genes to the next generation.   Different trees are responding in other ways. Some are ‘holding on’ to their leaves for longer, whilst others (like some birches and rowans) have already shed theirs - in order to limit the damage from wilting and water loss during the intense heat and drought of summer.  [caption id="attachment_39130" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Autumnal colour[/caption] Blackberries appeared early this Summer and few are to be seen this Autumn, some animals (like the dormouse) will search in vain. [caption id="attachment_39026" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Black Bryony berries (photo by Art Symons)[/caption] Will this Autumn be long and mild? It may extend into the traditional winter months. There is also the threat of extreme weather events (like Storm Arwen that brought severe winds across the UK last November).  Whilst we might welcome mild weather (with the high price of gas and electricity), it could be mean an increase in bacterial and fungal infections, not only of plants but also affecting overwintering insects - tucked up in cocoons and pupal cases. Prolonged cold periods, coupled with frosts limit the spread of such infections.  The cold of winter is also the traditional signal for animals like hedgehogs to hibernate.  If they are still active in winter when food is scarce, then they will lose condition and possibly starve to death.  Milder weather in Autumn and Winter also affects the migratory behaviour of birds, some birds may choose to overwinter here.  Some seeds need to experience cold temperatures before they will germinate in the following Spring. Climate change and severe weather events are here to stay until there is a coordinated and concerted effort to reduce greenhouse emissions on a global scale.  On a local scale, our gardens (which represent some 400,000 hectares of land) can make a contribution by encouraging wildlife / pollinators and promoting biodiversity.  Gardens can also help to some extent with extreme rainfall.  During heavy rain, water runs off hard surfaces and into the drains, these may also deal with sewage.  When the drains are overwhelmed by storm water, sewage is discharged into our rivers (and the sea).   Gardens can help by  reducing hard landscaping, so that rain can soak into the soil instead of running off into the drains making use of water butts.  They capture water, so it does not enter the drainage system.  It is also there to use when the garden needs water (and there is a hose pipe ban) mulching the soil with a layer of plant material. It is an effective method of conserving water in the soil and it reduces surface runoff, increasing the infiltration / penetration of water into the soil.  It helps keep the soil moist in times of drought, and helps reduce run off during heavy rainfall.  Particularly important when planting young trees / shrubs. [caption id="attachment_38957" align="aligncenter" width="675"] a light mulch (in Art's garden)[/caption]  

If you have planted new trees and there's been a spell of extremely dry weather, as happened in the summer of 2022, you might be very worried for their survival, but there are several things you can do to increase their chances.  This isn't just a problem for the first season because saplings can be at risk for the first three years after planting; it's also not a binary, live or die thing for your planting - usually some trees will survive and some will perish but the challenge is to maximise the percentage that make it through a drought.  Let's first consider how dry conditions affect trees.  The saplings' first response is often to increase root development to take up more water.  Your young plants will also seek to reduce water loss so the leaves will wilt or can even be shed even though it's only July or August, and this can lead to the saplings not having the ability to photosynthesise adequately.  So you need to do what you can to avoid water loss and, if practical, to apply water. So, to increase the chance of your saplings surviving you can, if practical, actually spread water around them but that may have to be done fairly regularly during the period of drought.  Ideally irrigation should happen overnight when evaporation is lower and that will also limit pest problems and "leaf burn" that may be associated with irrigation in full sun. An additional strategy is to weed the young trees thoroughly to reduce the competition for water.  This can be combined with firming up the soil around the base of your saplings to avoid the soil drying out through fissures.  To reduce evaporation and stop the weeds returning you can use a mulch around the base of your young trees - ideally a mulch mat or by spreading some woodchips or bark. A few weeks after the drought has passed but while the leaves are still on the saplings you can assess your losses and order new trees to replace those that have succumbed to the dry weather.  This process is described by foresters as "beating up" but when it comes to the actual planting this needs to be done carefully - only replace trees that you are sure have died rather than those which just lost their leaves early. For urban trees you can be prepared for a period of dry weather by installing watering tubes or bags which reduce surface run-off and make sure that the water reaches the tree roots.   It is unclear how many millions of trees have been lost to the 2022 drought but it certainly includes many mature trees as well as many newly-planted saplings and hedgerow shrubs.  It seems that droughts like this are part of a process of climate change and more such events are probable - so our woodlands will be under increasing stress over the next few years.  For those who are establishing new woodlands a sensible approach would be to plant only a proportion of the area each year and to select a wide variety of tree species.  It also suggests that for new woodlands you should, where possible, include the adopting of areas of natural regeneration - where trees have come up of their own accord - these self-set trees are likely to be very resistant / resilient to periods of extremely dry weather. [caption id="attachment_38870" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Drought - green shoots of recovery?[/caption]