At this time of year, certain flavourings come to the fore.  Cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon are a bit more prominent than at other times of year.  Though widely used in many cultures and cuisines, they are perhaps more associated with the winter months and Christmas.  Nutmeg comes from a dark leaved, evergreen tree Myristica fragrans.   The tree is indigenous to the Maluku Islands of Indonesia (specifically the Banda Islands), but is now widely grown in Indonesia, Malaysia, Grenada in the Caribbean and Kerala in India. The tree is dioecious, that is to say, there are male and female trees.  Male trees are unproductive in terms of nutmeg harvest, so grafting of cuttings from female trees is often used to produce new plants.  The trees take some twenty years to reach ‘peak production’. The fruit of the tree yields the Nutmeg, and the covering of the seed (the aril) is the source of Mace.  The fruits are gathered up and dried in the sun (for some 6 to 8 weeks).  As the structure dries,  the husk (seed coat) and seed separate.  The seed coat or shell is then broken and the seed picked out; it is separated from the reddish aril, which is the source of mace.  The grinding of the seed yields nutmeg.  Nutmeg has a distinctive, somewhat pungent fragrance and contributes a warm, slightly sweet taste to food.  It is used to flavour mulled wine, punches and cider, added to pumpkin pie and can be used to ‘spice up’ baking, from gingerbread to muffins or chocolate and fruit cakes. Nutmeg oil, which can be produced by a process of steam distillation, is rich in terpenes (like pinene and limonene).  It, too, can be used as a food flavouring or in products like toothpaste !  Mace, from the covering of the seed, has a more delicate flavour (than nutmeg) and may give a saffron-like colour to dishes - which may range from meat recipes to Christmas pudding. Cinnamon is used extensively in many cuisines and even in scented candles.  It is one of the most commonly used spices in Sweden.  Indeed, such is the ‘importance’ of their cinnamon buns - kanelbullar - that the Swedes now have an official Cinnamon Bun Day - on October 4th!  [caption id="attachment_39202" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Cinnamon 'buns'[/caption] Together with other spices such as turmeric, saffron, sumac, and cardamom, cinnamon is widely used in Portuguese, Turkish and Persian Cooking.  The properties of cinnamon come from the chemicals - cinnamaldehyde and eugenol. The cinnamaldehyde is largely responsible for the flavour and aroma of cinnamon,   whilst the eugenol has a pleasant, spicy, clove-like scent.  Cinnamon comes from the inner bark of trees of the genus Cinnamomum,  the trees belong the Laurel family.  They are four main species associated with cinnamon production “ Cinnamomum verum  Cinnamomum burmannii Cinnamomum cassia  Cinnamomum loureiroi C. verum has its origins in Sri Lanka and is sometimes referred to as ‘true cinnamon’, with the material derived from other sources sometimes referred to as “cassia’.  The material derived from the different Cinnamomum species has different physical properties.  Ceylon cinnamon gives a thin inner bark of a light brown colour, with a crumbly texture.  It has a subtle and aromatic flavour. , whereas, Cassia has a stronger, spicy flavour (and is much used in baking).   Most of the world’s production of cinnamon cassia now comes from Indonesia and China.  Cinnamon and cassia are often used interchangeably.  The trees are evergreen, with oval shaped leaves and a thick bark.  When a tree is two years old, it is coppiced.  That is, it is cut back to ground level so that in the following year a number of shoots are produced, which are allowed to grow on for future harvesting.  When cut, the stems have the outer bark is scraped off so that the inner bark can be removed.  It is this material that is rich in the spice.  As it dries, it curls up into rolls or ‘quills’.  Like many spices and metals, cinnamon was extensively traded across the ancient world.  It was utilized as a perfume in rubbing oils and was also used as a fragrance in the mummification / preservation of dead bodies in ancient Egypt.  Nero was said to have burned enormous quantities of the spice / incense at the funeral of his wife (Poppaea).  In recent times, cinnamon rich materials have been investigated for medical uses, specially in relation to type 2 diabetes and blood sugar control. Thanks to Pixabay for images (Emmie_Norfolk and aga2rk)

Looking out of the window as I type this month’s fungi focus, it is difficult to believe that but a few months ago we were at the tail end of a prolonged and intense heatwave and drought. Now as we plunge towards the depths of midwinter, the traditional mushroom hunting season is already well past its peak. Like heat and dryness, most fungi seem to have little tolerance for frost, snow and ice. But there’s no need to be too pessimistic that it’s all over for another year. There’s still plenty of stuff out in the woods and after several years of writing in these blogs about what can be found in any given month, as far as I’m concerned the season is never really over. “Seek and you shall find” is my chosen mantra when I head out with my camera. In fact, I perversely prefer the winter months to the brief but intense height of the season during September to November, a period that yields so many discoveries that photographing and identifying them all can be onerous and overwhelming, and when the forest floor is so dynamic it is difficult to know what species to make the subject of these monthly focusses. Winter is a great time to concentrate on the less showy side of the fungi kingdom; the crusts and the jellies and the other little things you might not notice until you actively start looking. This is the time to persevere with getting that ever-elusive perfect photo of such commonplace species as Candlesnuff Fungi (Xylaria hypoxylon), for example. It is most likely that in the process, while crouched amongst the crisp leaf litter, your eyes will wander and you’ll end up discovering something else you’d might otherwise never have noticed. Candlesnuff With this end-of-year windup for the winter, I decided to focus on a species that has just emerged over the past month that might be lingering a little longer while we wait for Spring. I’ve written before how jellies such as the Yellow Brain fungus and the various other types some refer to as Witches’ Butter manage to resist regular freezing and defrosting and can be found many months after they first emerge. To the list we might also add Jelly Ears and Tripe Fungi, but also another one I’ve not yet covered, which is the Purple Jellydisc (Ascocoryne sarcoides). These can take a variety of forms, from walnut-sized and brain-like to the more discoid example one might expect from its common name. They start emerging mid to late November, when the temperatures first start dropping, growing in clusters on dead deciduous trunks and branches – often beech but certainly not always – as if oozing from the wood. One might assume from the shape and texture that these are closely related to Yellow Brains and Crystal Brains, but whereas these other jellies are basidiomycetes (producing their spores on external structures), Purple Jellydiscs are ascomycetes (with their spores developing internally in sac-like structures called asci) - again, I’ve regularly covered this crucial taxonomic distinction, such as for example in some detail here. I would label the Purple Jellydisc a very common fungi, in that I’ve found it in every woodland I’ve ever spent much time in, although it is not as conspicuous as the other jellies. Yellow Brains, for example, seem to be appear quickly and fully formed, while Purple Jellydiscs seem to emerge small and grow slowly.  Black Witch I’m not entirely sure they are as durable as these other “true” jellies either; I’ve monitored a single growth of Exidia glandulosa, the Black Witches Butter, for a period of almost half a year, watching it dry, inflate, freeze and defrost through the seasons, but I am not entirely sure if I’ve really ever registered Purple Jellydiscs past January. These are also rather drab in the winter light too, more reddy brown than purple, and more opaque than glistening. They are consequently rather difficult to get a decent photo of, although with artificial lighting one gets a better sense of its blanched beetroot hues and jelly baby-like texture. This should all be enough for the casual nature lover to be able to look at a specimen fitting this basic description and to ascribe a name to it. As usually seems to be the case in mycology however, with the two near identical Yellow Brain species proving the point wonderfully, there are a handful of other species in the Ascocoryne genus that look pretty much exactly the same and share similar environmental niches. To prove this rather maddening point, just a few weeks back, I found a group of purplish discs growing in clusters on a fallen beech trunk that looked nothing like any other Purple Jellydiscs I’d ever found before, but they did fit descriptions of Ascocoryne cylichnium, which has the common name of the Budding Jellydisc. First Nature describes this species as “similar but its fruit bodies remain cup shaped rather than merging into a brain-like form.” So far so good, I thought, and if I didn’t have a microscope in my possession, I would have left it at that. But as First Nature also wrote, that “it can only be identified with certainty by microscopic study of the spores, which are much larger than those of Ascocoryne sarcoides”, I decided to dive in for a better look. At this point, I was also informed of the existence of a couple of further species that looked pretty much the same: Ascocoryne solitaria and Ascocoryne inflata. They could only be distinguished from one another and identified with any conviction through close microscopic scrutiny of specific structural details. Needless to say, they don’t have English common names. Anyway, to cut a long and potentially very tedious story short, I did look at my sample under the microscope and it turned out after all to be your bog standard Purple Jellydisc, Ascocoryne sarcoides, after all. I don’t think there’s much more to add at this point beyond a Merry Christmas and Happy New Year to all who have read this far!

The first stage to lino printing is to find inspiration. Christmas is a great time to try this craft as it can be used in Christmas cards or for printing your own wrapping paper. It's important to bear in mind that shapes are paramount with lino cutting and printing, so it's a good idea to look for distinctive shapes with clear edges. You can add in shading or marks after printing if you choose.    Winter is a great time to look for inspiration. I like to look in the woods. While walking, I look for leaf shapes or dried seed heads are my favourite. You can also draw from imagination if you prefer. Leaves like holly are fairly easy to draw with their clear defined points.    When I've collected some specimens I need to transfer them to paper so I can trace the shapes on to the lino. I'm not the best artist so after a few disappointing sketches I came up with another plan. I photocopied the leaves and seedheads by placing them on the glass of the copier and covering them with a sheet of white paper.   Bingo! They came out really well.   [caption id="attachment_39235" align="alignright" width="300"] Seed head[/caption]                   The hemlock seed heads looked a little cluttered which is tricky to create on the lino so I stripped the seeds and tried again. Important to remember some seeds, leaves etc are toxic so you need to be sensible handing them. [caption id="attachment_39246" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Tracing the leaves[/caption] Once I have the copied shapes or drawn the images I trace them onto tracing paper then flip the tracing paper and rub the back to transfer the image on to the lino. If it's not completely clear you can re draw it or draw directly on to the lino. When you have an image that you're happy with it's time to cut.   So, what will you need ? [caption id="attachment_39236" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Cutter with various nibs, plus a roller.[/caption] Lino.  This comes in different levels of density and lots of different sizes. You can purchase a selection to find out which you prefer. I buy from Etsy but there are many other available sources. Tools.  Cutting tools are small, shaped blades that fit into a handle. It takes some trial and error to find out what works for a design so good to have a spare square of lino for making practice cuts. [caption id="attachment_39238" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Cutting a flower shape[/caption] I cut my design or outline into the lino square - remember - what ever you remove will be white on the final print - and cut any detail I want with different blades. This may be trial and error and you can always come back and cut more but, obviously, cannot fill back in. Ink roller.  A small plastic or rubber coated roller, like a mini paint roller. This is the fun bit. Choose your ink colour and put a little ink on a smooth surface. I have an ink tray but you could use an old tile or similar. Roll the roller in the ink then over the design making sure it's well covered them press the lino piece onto paper or card or the other way around - pressing the paper on to the lino and run your fingers over the back to transfer the ink.  [caption id="attachment_39239" align="aligncenter" width="673"] Place ink in the tray and spread[/caption] [caption id="attachment_39240" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Evenly spread the ink on the roller and roll over the shape on the Lino[/caption] Inks   These come in every colour and shade and are water based so you can get proper messy and it all washes off. [caption id="attachment_39237" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Rolling tray and different colours of ink[/caption] It's entirely possible your creation doesn't look exactly how you wanted it to first time. It's a process where you will tailor how you draw, cut and print to get to what you want to achieve.   If you want you can add to a print with another ink colour and fill in different shape with another link cut or overlap a design or colour. There is lots of inspiration on the internet.  Designs can be simple or complicated depending on who is creating.   My daughter enjoyed making a toadstool print which was a simple shape and cut and now plans to make some Christmas cards. [caption id="attachment_39241" align="aligncenter" width="675"] Place lino onto card to print image and allow to dry.[/caption]

In recent times, we have heard much about various initiatives to plant more trees, such as The Queen’s Green Canopy tree planting project to mark the platinum jubilee. Tree planting is part of the government’s plan to mitigate certain aspects of climate change as the trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is one of the principal greenhouse gases.  Once absorbed and used in photosynthesis, much of this carbon is then locked away for many years in the form of complex compounds, such as cellulose and lignin. The peak of carbon dioxide uptake by UK woodlands and forests was estimated to be just under 20 million tonnes in 2009.  However, since that time the amount has actually declined.  Many of the conifer plantations that were planted back in the 1970’s and 1980’s have now been felled / harvested, so they no longer contribute to the uptake of carbon dioxide.  It is important that these clear felled areas are replanted and tree cover restored; indeed, in places increased.  Planting rates have risen in Scotland but the performance by the rest of the UK is somewhat limited.  Even with new planting, it takes time for such new forests / woodlands to reach the CO2 absorption levels seen in the 2000’s. Continuous cover forestry (CCF) is a different approach to woodland forest management; it seeks to avoid clear felling and  promotes a mosaic of trees by age and species. There are a number of factors that influence new planting, such as the availability of land.  Using high grade agricultural land for tree planting would affect targets for increased agricultural productivity and domestic food supply.  Also, with climate change and the increasing number of extreme weather events (storms, flooding, drought etc) greater thought needs to be given to risks such as forest fires.  Recent months have demonstrated the ferocity of forest fires in France, California and Portugal.  We cannot assume that the UK will be exempt from such events.  Similarly, we have witnessed powerful storms (such as Storm Arwen) which felled many thousands of trees (and impacted on public services such as electricity and train travel).  The warming climate is also associated with ‘new’ diseases and parasites in our woodlands and forests. New planting needs resilience ‘built in’ to the plan. The Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee in its recent report (2021/2) has made a number of important comments in relation to tree planting in the UK, notably : It noted that the Forestry Commission had said that nurseries in the UK will struggle to expand production to deliver the number of young trees required for the Government to achieve its planting ambitions. There is a lack of a sufficiently skilled and large workforce to achieve England’s tree planting ambitions. To meet the Government’s tree planting goals, the UK will need to import seeds and young trees (until domestic capacity increases); and this carries the risk of the introduction of pests and diseases.  

One of the most read blogs is that entitled “Stick and flick, a possible solution to dog mess in woodlands”.  It also has elicited some very detailed comments.  It concerns the problem of dog faeces / poo that is left in woodlands and public spaces.   A NFU  survey in Scotland revealed significant issues associated with irresponsible access, notably livestock worrying by dogs,  the impacts of owners failing to pick up faeces after their pets, but also plastic bag pollution . Whilst, there is no shortage of dog fouling laws in the United Kingdom, the hanging of poo-filled plastic bags from bushes and trees has sadly become commonplace in many areas.   Local authorities in England and Wales receive many thousands of complaints about dog fouling each year. Not only is dog faeces a risk to us in terms of disease (due to bacteria such as E.coli and Campylobacter, plus parasites such as hookworms and roundworms), but it is also a danger to livestock through parasites such as Neospora, which can cause abortion in cattle, and Sarcocystis which affects sheep. Forestry England asks you “Bag and bin your dog's waste. Any public or household waste bin can take bagged dog poo.”  The National Trust has produced a Canine Code, like that displayed at Mottistone Manor, Isle of Wight (see below).  It offers sound advice for wherever you are walking your dog be it a National Trust property or local woodland.

Ancient Trees A recent report has emphasised the importance of protecting and preserving ancient trees.  Ancient (or veteran) oaks can live in excess of a thousand years, as can Yews.  The Bristlecones of California and Nevada may live for some five thousand years ! Such trees represent a massive carbon store.  The carbon dioxide from the atmosphere being locked away for a millennium or five!  Not only are such trees a significant carbon store but they also offer a home or food for many other species - fungi, epiphytes such lichens & mosses, plus larval and adult stages of insects, and a variety of birds and mammals.  As such the are localised centres of diversity that contribute to ecosystem stability.  Not only are these trees ‘hotspots’ for species diversity but they are also centres of mycorrhizal activity and connectivity.  Mycorrhizae represent a symbiosis between fungi and plant. Plants ‘register’ wounding. When we are hurt, our nerves register the pain through the movement of sodium and potassium ions along the nerves.  When a plant is wounded, calcium ions are known to move in response, travelling from cell to cell, and leaf to leaf.  However, it is now known (through research at the John Innes Centre in Norwich) that this is not the first response of the plant to physical injury.  When cells are wounded they release glutamate, a form of glutamic acid (an amino acid).  This travels along the cell wall and activates channels in the cell membranes that then allow the movement of the calcium ions. A bumblebee pathogen. One of parasites of bumblebees is Crithidia bombi.  It is a protozoan (single celled animal) that reproduces in the gut of the bumble bee. When infected with this parasite the foraging behaviour of the bee is impaired, as is its ability to learn.   A colony may also suffer from increased worker mortality.  Now research has shown that floral structure may influence the transmission of this parasite from bee to bee.  The length and shape of the petals seems to be a critical factor.  If the bees ‘crawls’ in a ‘tube’ of petals, then it may leave behind some faeces.  If the bee is infected with the parasite, then it will be present in the faeces.  If the flower is then visited by another bee then it runs the risk of coming in contact with the faeces and being infected with the parasite.  Plants that have flowers with shorter petals / corollas are less likely to have faeces deposited within them, and therefore less likely to pass on the parasite to the visiting bumblebees.

Most months, Jasper has introduced us to a new fungus or group of fungi that have made their appearance in woodlands,  some on trees or branches or leaves, others simply emerging from the soil.  Some fungi are parasitic or biotrophic requiring a living host organism on which they feed.  Then there are those that live in and feed on dead and decaying matter in the soil; these are termed saprobic or saprophytic.  The structures that we normally see (particularly at this time of the year) are the fruiting or reproductive bodies of the fungus / fungi.  The majority of a fungus exists as a network of microscopic ‘tubes’ that permeate either the host organism, or the soil / decaying matter in which the fungus has made its ‘home’.  An individual tube is known as a hypha and collectively they form a complex network - the mycelium. The fungal mycelia present in the soil form a vast underground network.   Some of these fungi enter into beneficial associations with plants - mycorrhizal associations.  The fungal hyphae wrap themselves around (and sometimes into) the roots of plants and trees, with whom they share minerals and nutrients. Generally speaking, the fungus helps to supply the plant with mineral nutrients (like nitrates / phosphates) and in return receives carbohydrate material from the plant’s photosynthetic capacity.  These mycorrhizal systems form part of what has been termed the ‘wood wide web’.  Dr. Suzanne Simard, a forest ecologist from the University of British Columbia, coined the term to describe the complex relationships between fungi and plants in woodland and forest ecosystems. It has been suggested that (millions of years ago) fungi helped plants transition from their aquatic home to life on land, with the fungal network serving as a ‘root system’.  Fungi (and bacteria) release enzymes (biological catalysts) and these help break down the complex compounds (like lignin, cellulose and starch) present in dead plants and animals.  As a result of this decomposition, humus is formed. Humus is a colloid.  A complex mixture of materials, some in solution, some in suspension. Humus binds the inorganic mineral particles of the soil together, is a store of nutrients and helps water retention.  The fungal network in the soil sequesters enormous amounts of carbon.  The soil is one of the Earth’s main carbon ‘sinks’.   If soil is over-worked or damaged by the intensive and extensive use of chemicals in farming, then it degrades and with it the rich microbial network. Damage to the soil and its complex microbial population can impact on the growth of plants - from the simplest green plants to the largest trees. Not only are soil fungi and bacteria involved in the cycling of carbon and nitrogen, but they help maintain the fertility and structure of the soil.  Soil is the ultimate recycling system, we need to cherish the soil and its fungal and bacterial populations - it helps maintain the ecosystem services on which we all depend.  Without healthy soils, we face a very bleak future.  

When you look across cultivated fields you are usually surveying an unrelenting monoculture  -of earth or wheat or grass. Lots of pesticides and fertilizers are used and there are regular assaults by bladed machines.  It's bleak for wildlife, whether plants or animals.  But nature is resourceful and clings on where it can.  And within intensive agricultural areas there is a pattern to the small oases of diversity. There is more diversity where an obstacle stops the machines in their track  Sometimes that's a linear feature like a river or a hedge or maybe just a fence, but often it's just a sticky-up object. A tree, a pylon, a pole, or even a wind-turbine.   At the base of objects sticking up in fields you often find a clump of plants, sometimes flowers, and shelter for small mammals and birds.  Taking the train through northern France recently, I realised how extremely industrialised their countryside has become and it's the same in most of Lincolnshire.  Hedges have been removed, single trees are rare and every effort is directed to increasing wheat / crop production.  Diversity is not just discouraged but it is seen as the enemy - a small copse or hedge can harbour swarms of crop-eaters so these have usually been grubbed out (as have many ponds (see the woodlands blog on ghost ponds in Norfolk).  Whatever the spin and rhetoric, the large scale farmer is at odds with biodiversity. The soil is a highly lucrative resource where farmers want to maximise their returns.  Increasingly, they use modern technology with tractors guided by SatNav, planting twice a year, with harvesting dictated by accurate weather forecasts and sophisticated seedlings being protected and fed by brutally efficient pesticides and fertilisers.  Lip service is often paid to the farmers' role in looking after the countryside but in reality most of them are businessmen and businesswoman wanting to optimise returns.  Farming businesses' borrowings and financial objectives don't allow them to spend too long worrying about biodiversity or the "hundred harvests" concern - that, when treated badly, the soil will be mostly gone (e.g fenland blows) or made unusable within 50 or 100 years. Refuge is an important concept in ecology: the idea that an organism gets protection from predation by hiding in inaccessible areas. Coral reefs are an example of habitats where animals can take refuge, and rainforests contain numerous physical refuges. [The concept of refuges or refugia has developed in recent years].   In the case of the arable fields of Britain,  it seems as if it is mainly the "sticky-up things" and linear features  (hedgerows etc.) which provide refuge, but not just from animal predation but from humans and their machinery.  Nature is reacting to humans as if they are the predators. There are thousands of objects in the countryside which act as refuges - it's a benign and unintended consequence of landscape clutter.  For example signposts, pillar boxes, mobile phone masts, abandoned fence posts, and even discarded farm equipment.  These objects can also offer a structure for plants to climb up in their quest for sunlight and they can provide shelter from wind, but mostly they offer protection against the farmer and the machines.  Unfortunately, the natural human instinct is usually to tidy up everything in sight, which often works to the detriment of biodiversity.  It would be better to protect vegetation and stop mammals from being mashed up by mowers / machinery, and it is often the residual sticky-up features that protect these small refuges.  Perhaps we need less rural de-cluttering of the British landscape, and more ‘mini refuges’.